Chiyambukiro cha Lamulo pa Ufulu wa Akaidi ndi Malamulo

United States Constitution ndilo lamulo lalikulu la dzikolo, koma kugwiritsira ntchito kwake anthu omangidwa kwakhala magwero a kuvuta kwa lamulo ndi kwa anthu kuyambira pamene anakhazikitsidwa. Pamene kuli kwakuti bomalo mosakanika limasunga mphamvu ya kusunga ndi kulanga, Konsichushoni imaikanso malire pa mphamvu imeneyo, kutsimikizira kuti ngakhale aja amene achotsedwa ufulu wa anthu ali ndi ufulu waukulu. Kulinganiza pakati pa chisungiko cha anthu, chilango, ndi ulemu kumayesedwa mosalekeza m’makhoti ndi m'malo owongolera. Nkhaniyi ikupenda mmene malamulo a malamulo a malamulo a Chigawo Chachisanu ndi Chachinayi ndi Chotetezera ndi Cholamulira, imapendanso malamulo aakulu amene apanga chitetezo, ndipo ikufotokoza mavuto opitirizabe ndi zoyesayesa za kusintha zinthu m’nyengo zamakono.

Crucio, mawu akuti “andende ndi ogwidwa" akuphatikizapo mbali zambiri: akaidi omangidwa omwe ali ndi zilango, ogwidwa m’ndende, anthu amene ali m’ndende zoloŵera m’dziko, ndi awo amene ali m’zipatala za boma. Malamulo samagwira ntchito mofanana m’magulu onse; mwachitsanzo, akaidi omangidwa angalangidwe, pamene ogwidwa asanaweruzidwe sangalangwe. Komabe, onse amagaŵana chitetezo china chapadera pa boma loponderezedwa. Kuzindikira machinjirizo ameneŵa n’kofunika kwa akatswiri a zamalamulo, opanga malamulo, ndi nzika zimene zimasamalira chilungamo ndi ulemu wa anthu m’dongosolo la dziko.

Kuteteza Akaidi ndi Asilikali pa Malamulo

Kusintha kwa Malamulo Kwachisanu ndi Chisanu: Nkhanza ndi Chilango Chachilendo

Mpando wa Azitsutso wa Eight Reformation umapereka kuti “pabailo la ndalama sizidzafunidwa, kapena kulipiritsidwa kopambanitsa, kapena chilango chankhanza ndi chachilendo. Kwa akaidi, ichi ndi chitetezero chalamulo cholunjika ku mikhalidwe ya nkhanza ndi kuchiritsa. Makhoti amasulira “kupanda ulemu ndi kwachilendo” kukhala kusonyezera miyezo yamakono ya ulemu. Zimenezi zikutanthauza kuti kachitidwe kamene kanavomerezedwa monga kukwapula, kugwiritsira ntchito unyolo, kapena kusasamala kwadala kaamba ka zosoŵa zazikulu za mankhwala tsopano kangaswe Lamulo la Chisanu ndi Chisanu.

Mu Estelle v. Gamble . Gamble . [FLT : 1] [1976], Bwalo Lapamwamba linatsutsa kuti kusasamala kwadala kaamba ka zosoŵa zazikulu za mkaidi kuli chilango chankhanza ndi chachilendo. Mlandu umenewo unabuka pamene wandende analephera kupereka chithandizo chokwanira cha kuvulala kwa msana pamene anali kugwira ntchito. Khotilo linazindikira kuti boma liri ndi thayo la kupereka chisamaliro chamankhwala chifukwa chakuti akaidi sangathe kufunafuna chisamaliro chawo. Muyezowo kuyambira pamenepo wagwiritsiridwa ntchito m’milandu zikwi zambiri yokhudzana ndi chithandizo cha mano kuti apeze chithandizo chamaganizo.

Mofananamo, Kusintha kwa Auntry kuyang'anira mikhalidwe ya kutsekeredwa. Rhodes v. Chapman (191], Khoti linagamula kuti kutsekera kwaŵiri (anthu aŵiri m’selo imodzi ya munthu) sikunali kopanda lamulo. Komabe, mikhalidwe imene imamana akaidi “mlingo wapamwamba wa zofunika za moyo, wonga ngati ukhondo, chakudya chokwanira, kapena chitetezo cha chiwawa, kuswa kutsendereza. Kusoŵeka kwa padera kwakhalanso koletsedwa; kupangitsa kuwonongeka kwa maganizo ndi mikhalidwe ina, yapezedwa kuti ikuswa malamulo auchimo auchimo.

M’chikalata cha 14 cha M’mbuyomu: Kutsatira Makonzedwe ndi Chitetezo Cholingana

Magwero achiŵiri a chitetezo cha lamulo kwa akaidi ndi ogwidwa. Atry Process Claus imaletsa boma kulanda munthu aliyense moyo, ufulu, kapena katundu popanda njira zoyenerera. Izi zimagwira ntchito m’mbali zingapo m’ndende:

  • [[FLT: 0] Maumboni achidule: Mu Wolff v. McDonnell [1974], Bwalo lamilandu linanena kuti pamene akuluakulu a ndende alanga akaidi m’njira zimene zimawamanitsa kukongola kwa nthaŵi yake kapena kuwatsekera, ayenera kupereka pang'ono chabe njira zofunikira, chidziŵitso cha mlandu, ndi ndemanga ya zifukwa.
  • [[FLT: 0] Ozengedwa mlandu: chifukwa chakuti sanaikidwebe mlandu, ogwidwa m'makhoti sangalangidwe konse. Pansi pa Bell v. Wolfish, mikhalidwe ndi ziletso zili ndi lamulo kokha ngati zili zogwirizana ndi cholinga cha boma chotsimikizirika, monga chisungiko kapena lamulo, ndipo osati mopambanitsa mogwirizana ndi cholinga chimenecho. Zimenezi zimaika mtolo wolemera pa boma kuposa kwa akaidi omangidwa.
  • [[FLT: 0] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . [ [[FLT] Johnson] v. California . [2005], Khoti linagwiritsira ntchito mosamalitsa kuyang'anira lamulo la ndende limene linachititsa akaidi kugawana kwa masiku 60 pakalipa nthaŵi yoyamba ya gawo, kugamula kuti lamulolo liyenera kukhala “losoka bwino lomwe la kutumikira chikondwerero chogwira ntchito.

Kusintha Koyamba: Kulankhula Mwaufulu ndi Chipembedzo

Otsekera ndende amasunga ufulu Woyamba, ngakhale kuti safley ndi zolinga zalamulo za kupeka. Iwo angagwirizane ndi maloya, banja, ndi zoulutsira nkhani, ndipo ali ndi ufulu wa kugwiritsa ntchito chipembedzo chawo . Kuphatikizapo kupezeka kwa malemba achipembedzo, malo ogona, ndi mipata yolambira. Nkhani yotchuka . Safley v. SaFLY [[FL:1] [1987]) ikhazikitsa muyezo: malamulo a ndende oletsa ufulu wa akaidi kukhala ovomerezeka ndi ufulu wa lamulo ndi oyenera ngati “ayenera kusungidwa kapena kukwaniritsa zolinga zalamulo. Mkhalidwe wapamwamba umenewu umatsimikizira kuti makhoti apereke chigamu chachikulu, koma sulola malamulo odziimira kapena opambanitsa.

Mwachitsanzo, mu O’LO v. Malo a Shabazz [1] (1987), Bwalo Lamilandu linachirikiza lamulo limene linaletsa Asilamu akaidi kupita ku utumiki wachipembedzo wa mlungu ndi mlungu chifukwa chakuti linasemphana ndi madeti a ntchito ya ndende, kupeza lamulo logwirizana bwino ndi chisungiko ndi kukonzanso. Otsutsa amanena kuti “kulolera” kaŵirikaŵiri kumalola ufulu kuponderezedwa, koma kupitirizabe kuyesa kolamulira.

Lamulo Lachinayi Lowonjezera: Kufufuza Kopanda Nzeru

Anthu opatulidwa achepetsako chitetezo chachinayi chopitira ku kufufuza. Mfundo n’njakuti kusoŵa chitetezo ndi dongosolo kwa ndende kumaposa kuyembekezera kwa masiku onse kwa chinsinsi. Hudson v. Palmer [19984], khotilo linkanena kuti akaidi sakuyembekezera zinthu zachinsinsi m’maselo awo, kulola kuti maselo achilengedwe azifufuza popanda zilozo. Komabe, kufufuza kwa thupi ndi njira zina zotchuka kwambiri kuyenera kuchitidwa moyenerera ndi osati mwa njira yopanda chifukwa chomveka. Oyang'anira milandu atha kukhala ndi chitetezo chachikulu, koma kwa akaidi omangidwa, omangidwa, ma dementi achisanu akupereka malo aang'ono.

Malamulo Owonjezera Achisanu ndi Chisanu ndi Chisanu ndi Chisanu: Dongosolo la Malamulo ndi Uphungu

Chitetezo chimenechi chimaperekedwa kwa akaidi amene ayang’anizana ndi milandu yatsopano kapena machitidwe amene angawachititse kuwonjezera milandu. Komabe, kuzenga milandu m’ndende n’kwachiŵembu, osati kwaupandu, choncho ufulu wa Kukonzanso Koyamba mwalamulo suyenera kugwiritsidwa ntchito mwachindunji pokhapo ngati mawuwo agwiritsiridwa m’nkhani ya upandu yosiyana.

Pa Sixth Amendment pamapereka ufulu wa kupereka uphungu. Kwa akaidi, zimenezi zamasuliridwa kukhala kuyenera kwa kulankhulana mwachinsinsi ndi maloya, ndi kukhala ndi ku laibulale yalamulo kapena chithandizo chalamulo chokonzekera kaamba ka zifuno za apilo kapena habeas corpus, monga momwe zakhazikitsidwa mu Bounds v. Smith [77]]. Khoti lakhala likuima pa la m'mbuyo pa zimene zinasunga v. Casey [196]] , kugawa chiyenetso cha mikhalidwe imene akaidi amayang'anizana ndi mavuto enieni chifukwa cha kusoŵa kofikiridwa.

Milandu ya Khoti Lalikulu Yomwe Inasintha Ufulu wa Anthu Omangidwa

Graham v. Connor[FL:1] (1998): Kulolera pogwiritsira ntchito Magulu ankhondo

Mu Graham v. Connor . , Bwalo linavomereza kuti mphamvu yopambanitsa ya awo osagwidwa imapendedwa pansi pa “kulolera kwamphamvu” kwa Four Amendment. Komabe, kwa akaidi ogwidwa, amanena kuti aukali wopambanitsa amagwa pansi pa Demendment Yachisanu ndi . Nkhanizo zimasonyeza mmene kutetezera kwa malamulo kumagwiritsira ntchito muyezo wa Olamulira Wachinayi (kuyang’anitsitsa kukhala woyenerera panthaŵi ino), pamene kunena kwa woweruzayo amagwiritsira ntchito mphulupulu ya dala kapena muyezo wa njiru ndi wankhalwe, malinga ndi mphamvu yogwiritsiridwa ntchito. Nkhaniyo imasonyeza mmene malamulo amachitira kusiyana ndi malo.

Estelle v. Gamble (1976): Madokotala monga Kuyenera kwa Malamulo

Monga momwe taonera, mlanduwu unatsimikizira kuti kusasamala kwadala za chithandizo chamankhwala kumaswa Lamulo Lachisanu ndi Chitatu. Khotilo linalingalira kuti pambuyo pa kumangidwa, boma limakhala ndi mlandu wa thanzi ndi chisungiko cha mzimayi. Chiyambire pamenepo, makhoti akhala ndi vuto la “kusasamala zinthu." . . Ndi muyezo wofunikira osati kunyalanyaza chabe, koma osati cholinga. Mlandu umakhalabe chinsinsi cha chithandizo cha mankhwala m’ndende.

Wolff v. McDonnell (1974): Kutsatira Chilango

Pambuyo pa Wolff , akaidi sanazindikire zoyenera kuchita ntchito m'zochitika zopereka chilango. Khoti linagamula kuti pamene chilango chitulukapo kutaya zilongozo zanthaŵi yabwino kapena kuikidwa m’ndende, mkaidi ali ndi ufulu wa kudziŵitsa chidziŵitso cholembedwa, kumvetsera ndi kuyenera kwa kuitana mboni (ngati sikwaupandu), ndi ndemanga yolembedwa ya zopezedwa.

[[FLT: 0] ? Safley . (1987): Kuyesa Kulolera

Harker inakhazikitsa “kulolera” kwa kupenda malamulo a m'ndende amene amaletsa ufulu walamulo. Khoti linandandandalika mfundo zinayi: (1) ngati pali kugwirizana koyenera pakati pa lamulo ndi chiwongola dzanja cha boma lalamulo ndi chiwongola dzanja chalamulo; (2) ngati njira zina zogwiritsira ntchito kuyenera zidakalipo; (3) chiyambukiro chimene kukhazikitsa kuyenera kukakhala ndi alonda, akaidi ena, ndi chuma cha ndende; ndi (4) kusoŵa kwa njira zodzisungira. Kuyesa kumeneku kwachi kwasulizidwa kwambiri ndi ochirikiza ufulu wa anthu, koma kumakhalabe mwala wa ndende Yoyamba ndi 141.

Johnson v. California (2005): Fuko ndi Scrutiny

Mu Johnson . Khoti linakana chigamulo chakuti kuyesa kulolera kwa ku Turner kuyenera kugwira ntchito pa kusiyanitsa mafuko m’ndende. Mmalomwake, chinanena kuti kusankhana mafuko konse, ngakhale kwa oyang’anira ndende, kuyenera kukhutiritsa kupenda kosamalitsa [1] mlingo wapamwamba wa kupenda kwachiweruzo. Mlandu wa California wogaŵa akaidi ndi mpikisano wa masiku 60. Khotilo linanena kuti lamulolo linali lopanda pake ndipo linali lofunikira kulungamitsidwa, kumene boma linalephera kupereka. Chigamulo chimenechi chinatsimikiziranso kuti lamulo lapamwamba la kulingana kwa mafuko limapangitsa ngakhale kumbuyo kwa makhoma a ndende.

Mavuto Amene Tikukumana Nawo

Kutsekeredwa M’ndende Kuli Kokha Ndiponso Thanzi Lamaganizo

Ngakhale kuti malamulo amateteza, kutsekera m’ndende kumakhala kofala ku United States. Anzake angakhale m’maselo ang’onoang’ono kwa maola 23 patsiku, kaŵirikaŵiri popanda kucheza ndi anthu. Kufufuza kwachititsa kuti kusungulumwa kwanthaŵi yaitali kukhale ndi vuto la matenda a maganizo, kudzipha, ndi kupsinjika maganizo. Maboma ena achepetsa kugwiritsa ntchito kwa achinyamata, akazi oyembekezera, ndi odwala matenda a maganizo. Makhoti a United Nations anena kuti kutsendedwa kwa munthu payekha sikukuchitikanso ngati kuzunza.

Kusasamalira Bwino Thanzi Lamaganizo

Mosasamala kanthu za Estelle v. Gamble , madongosolo ambiri owongolera amavutika kukwaniritsa ngakhale miyezo yosasamala. Kuchedwa m'kuchiritsa, magulu a zamankhwala osagwira ntchito, ndi kulephera kuyang'anira matenda osatha monga a shuga ndi HIV n’zofala. Mathanzi amaganizo ali opereŵera kwambiri; chiŵerengero cha akaidi odwala matenda aakulu a maganizo chawonjezeka, komabe malo ambiri opanda akatswiri a zamaganizo kapena aphungu okwanira. Mu 2023, woweruza wa boma ku Alabama anapeza kuti ndende 88 Develotion ya boma inaswa dongosolo la boma mwa kulephera kupereka mautumiki oyenera a zamaganizo. Popanda uyang'a ntchito ndi ziŵiriro, malonjeza a lamulo akhalabe opanda pake.

Kuiŵala Kusamuka

Ogwidwa ogwidwa ndi anthu ndi anthu apadera. Iwo sapatsidwa chilango koma amayembekezera kuchotsedwa. Komabe kaŵirikaŵiri amayang'anizana ndi mikhalidwe yofanana ndi ya ndende . Kumangidwa kwa magulu ena, kuchepa kwa kuimira kwalamulo, ndi kuikidwa kwanthaŵi yaitali. Makhoti azindikira kuti Servement Procession Claus imagwira ntchito kwa ogwidwa kusamutsidwa, ndipo makhoti ena aang'ono anena kuti kutsekera anthu popanda kuvomereza lamulo loyenerera. Komabe, boma likupitiriza kutsutsa ulamuliro wa kutsendereza pansi pa malamulo a kusamuka kwa anthu, kuchititsa kuti asunthebe.

Kusiyana Mafuko ndi Mafuko

Aafirika ndi Aspanic ndi Aspanic amamangidwa mosalekeza. Pamene kuli kwakuti Kutetezera Claus kwa Malamulo Kumaletsa tsankho mwadala, kusiyana kwa dongosolo kumabuka ndi zinthu zophatikizapo kusalingana kwa kakhalidwe ndi chuma, machitidwe a lamulo okondera, ndi malamulo opatula. Makhoti akhala ozengereza kupeza kuswa malamulo kwa padziko lonse popanda umboni wa cholinga cha kuphwanya lamulo. Komabe, kusagwirizana kwa malamulo kumadzutsa mafunso aakulu onena za chilungamo ndi kuyenerera kwa kuikidwa kwa anthu onse.

Kusintha Zinthu

Mabungwe omenyera ufulu wachibadwidwe . monga ngati American Libersion Union, projekiti yokakamiza [, ndi American Bar Association [[FLT:]] [1] [1] [1] milandu ya ufulu wa andende ndi kuchirikiza kusintha kwa malamulo. Magawo apamwamba a kusintha amaphatikizapo:

Malamulo, Congress yapasa pa Chikalata cha Kugwirira Chilango m'Ndende (2003) kuti athetse chiwawa cha kugonana, ndipo posachedwapa, Chikalata Choyamba cha Act (208) cholinga cha kuchepetsa zigamulo zoletsa kusudzula ndi kuchepetsa zigamulo zina za oweruza. Komabe, ntchito yaikulu ikupitirira pamlingo umene anthu ambiri ali m’ndendemo.

Kufunika kopitirizabe kwa chitetezo cha lamulo sikungatchulidwe mopambanitsa. Makhoti amagwira ntchito monga operekera chilango chachikulu pamene mabungwe akuluakulu apitirira, koma kutsutsa kumachedwa ndi kugwiritsa ntchito ndalama. Potsirizira pake, anthu olungama ayenera kutsimikizira kuti kuyang'anira akaidi ndi ogwidwa kumasonyeza makhalidwe apamwamba kwambiri: ulemu wa munthu, kukondera, ndi ufulu ku nkhanza zosafunika. Malamulo ameneŵa si ziphunzitso zalamulo; ndi mlingo wa kudzipereka kwathu ku lamulo.