Lamulo la kuopsa kwa kaŵiri limakhala limodzi la machinjirizo aakulu kwambiri m'lamulo la America laupandu, kuteteza anthu ku mphamvu ya boma ya kuwaweruza mobwerezabwereza chifukwa cha mlandu umodzimodziwo. Linakhazikitsidwa m'lamulo lakale ndipo pambuyo pake linagwirizana ndi Kukonzanso kwa Fi5 kwa United States, chiphunzitso chimenechi chimapangitsa kuti mfundoyi ikhale yomaliza, imaletsa kuchenjerera boma, ndi kusunga umphumphu wa dongosolo lachiweruzo. Pamene kuli kwakuti chitetezocho chikuyesedwa kaŵiri pa mlandu upandu umodzimodziwo chikuwoneka kukhala wotheratu, makhoti bwalo amilandu akhazikitsa kuswa kotsimikizirika kololedwa ndi mikhalidwe yochepa. Kumvetsetsa malire ameneŵa nkofunika kaamba ka otetezera aupandu, oimba mlandu, ndi aliyense wotsendereza dongosolo la chiweruzo.

Mfundo yaikulu njaikulu: Munthu atamasulidwa kapena atapezedwa ndi mlandu winawake, boma silingabweretsenso mlandu wa upandu umodzimodziwo. Zimenezi zimaletsa boma kugwiritsa ntchito chuma cha woimbidwa mlandu, kuwachititsa kupsinjika maganizo ndi ndalama mobwerezabwereza, kapena kulola oweruza mlandu wachiŵiri "kuluma pa apulo" pambuyo pa zotsatira zoipa. Komabe, chenicheni nchomwe chimasintha kwambiri. Mabungwe, kuchonderera, chiphunzitso cha uchifumu chosiyana, ndi lingaliro la "mlanduwo" zonse zimayambitsa mlandu wachiŵiri. Nkhaniyi imafufuza malire a kuopsa koŵirikiza kaŵiri, kulimba kwake koyambirira kumbuyo kwa lamulo, ndi mfungulo imene imalola kuphedwanso.

Kodi Kuika Munthu Pangozi Kuŵiri N’kutani?

Chikalata cha ngozi ziŵiri cha Demetrimension yachisanu chimapereka: "Kupanda munthu aliyense adzaikidwa m'upandu umodzimodziwo kuti aikidwe kuupandu wa moyo kapena kudwaladwa. Malamulo ameneŵa amagwira ntchito ku maboma kudzera ku Gemesion ya 14neth (onani Benton v. Maryland, 395 U.S. 784 (1969). Jeopary amamatiza m'mayeso a oweruza milandu pamene aweruza alumbira, ndi m'zembemba pamene mboni yoyamba yalumbira.

Chitetezero chimathandiza zinthu zitatu zosiyana: chimaletsa munthu kulangidwa kambirimbiri pa upandu umodzimodziwo, chimatsekereza boma kuyesa mlandu pambuyo pa kuimbidwa mlandu, ndipo chimaletsa kumangidwa kwamilandu yambiri yachitsutso chimodzimodzicho ngakhale ngati woimbidwa mlandu sanakhululukidwe kapena kuimbidwa mlandu (m’malo mwake, pambuyo pa mlandu woperekedwa popanda chilolezo cha woimbidwa mlandu). Chilichonse mwa zimenezi chili ndi malamulo ake ndi makhoti amene atha kuchotsa mlanduwo kwa zaka mazana ambiri.

Mbiri Yakale

Mfundo yachikhalidwe inayamba kuyambika ku Greece ndi Roma wakale, koma mtundu wake wamakono unaonekera m'malamulo a Chingelezi. M’ma 1100, mawu a ndimo debet végari pro et eaeusahma . . " Palibe munthu amene ayenera kuvutitsidwa kaŵiri chifukwa chimodzi ndi chimodzi" — anali maziko a chilungamo cha m'zaka zapakati. Podzafika zaka za zana la 12, lamulo la Chizungu linavomereza mapempho a afoireis coversetion (''') (asulidwe) ndi woweruza [woweruza] [FLT: 5,] (makhoma) monga zitsutso zomalizira kutembenuza. Omwe a ku America ananyamula zitetezero, ndi kukonzanso koyenera kukonza.

Ku Republic yoyambirira, makhoti anagwiritsira ntchito lamulolo motsimikiza kuletsa kuzenga mlandu pambuyo pa kuimbidwa mlandu, koma kusiyapo milandu ndi zikalata zinayambika pang’onopang’ono. Zigamulo za Khoti Lalikulu la 19 ndi 20 zinawongolera chiphunzitsocho, kulinganiza ufulu wa munthu aliyense payekha ndi kusamala kwa lamulo la boma. Lerolino, ngozi ziŵiri ndizo chitetezo champhamvu cha lamulo, koma limodzi lokhala ndi malire ofotokozedwa bwino.

Pamene Mapazi Apangozi

Woimbidwa mlandu asananene kuti ali ndi ngozi yoŵirikiza, ngozi iyenera kukhala itafika poyamba. Nthaŵi ya kumamatira imasiyanasiyana ndi mtundu wa kupitiriza:

  • Milandu yachimbuuzi: Jeoparding joarding pamene ajuli aikidwa pa kakonzedwe ka zinthu ndi kulumbira.
  • Mayeso a Bench: [[FLT :1] Jeoparding pamene mboni yoyamba yalumbira.
  • Pempho za Chikumbu: Jeoparding pamene khoti lilandira pempholo mosazengereza.
  • [[FLT: 0] Zochitika za kupulupudza kwachimuna: Mapangano a Jeopardy pamene mboni yoyamba yalumbira pa kumvetsera kwachiwembu.

Ngati mlandu wachotsedwapo asanagwirizanitse ngozi — mwachitsanzo, oweruza asanalumbitsidwe — boma lingabwezere milandu popanda chopinga cha lamulo. Mofananamo, ngati woimbidwa mlanduyo achita ngozi mwa kuvomereza kulakwa, boma lingabwezere mlandu. Kumvetsetsa pamene ngozi iikidwa kumasuliza ngati zipilala za lamulozo ziri mlandu wachiŵiri.

Opatulidwa: Pamene Kuzunza Kuloledwa

Ngakhale kuti mawu a Chisinthiko chachisanu ngomveka, makhoti azindikira mikhalidwe ingapo imene boma lingazengemo woimbidwa mlanduyo, osati njira zozembera koma chifukwa chofunikiradi ndi kufunika kwa kusunga umphumphu wa kuzenga mlanduko.

Kulakwa kwa Makhoti

Kulakwa kwa mayeso kumadula mlandu asanaweruze. Ngati boma lingayese mlanduwo pa chifukwa chifukwa chake mayeso analengezedwa. Ngati mayeso a kuweruza alakwika kuchokera ku "kufunikira kwenikweni" — monga ngati ajuli opachikidwa, imfa ya jucker, kapena cholakwika chachikulu — woimbidwa mlanduyo angaphedwenso. Chitsanzo chapadera ndicho ujuli umene sungagwirizane pa chigamulo; woweruza angalengeze mlandu molakwa, ndipo boma lingayesenso woimbidwa pamaso pa juli yatsopano. Onani [FL:] United States. Percip [F:] , U.U.59)

Ngati, ngakhale kuli tero, wozenga mlanduyo asuntha m’kulakwa (wodziŵika monga "kuzunza kolakwa" kukwiyitsa mwadala), kukonzanso kungaletsedwe. Mu Oregon . Kennedy, 456 U.S. 667 (1992), Khoti Lapamwamba linakhulupirira kuti kokha pamene khalidwe la woweruzayo linalinganizidwira kusonkhezera woimbidwayo kuti apemphe kuti apereke chiweruzo cholakwika. Kulakwa kapena kuopa kwambiri kwa kawiri sikuli kokwanira.

Ndiponso, ngati khoti lilengeza kulakwa pa chitsutso cha woimbidwa mlanduyo ndipo popanda kusonyeza kufunikira kwake, kuweruzanso kwaletsedwa. Lamulo limeneli limaletsa woweruza kumaliza mlandu popanda kuweruzidwa chifukwa chakuti mlandu wa woweruzayo uli wofooka. muyezo wotsimikizira kuti maupandu asungidwa kaamba ka ngozi yeniyeni.

Kupempha ndi Kubwerezanso

Pambuyo pa chitsimikizo, ngati woimbidwa mlanduyo achita apilo mwachipambano ndi kupambana kubwezera, boma lingawonere mlandu. Kusintha kumeneku kumavomereza kuti kubwezera sikuli kulakwa; chitsimikiziro choyambirira chimachotsedwa, ndipo woimbidwa mlanduyo amabwezeredwa ku malo a mlandu. Khoti Lapamwamba litsimikizira zimenezi mu [FLT: 0] United States v. Ball [FL:1], 163 U.S 662 (1896), ndipo limakhalabe ndi lamulo. Komabe, ngati khoti la applate libwezera pa maziko kuti umboniwo sunali wokwanira kuchirikiza chitsimikizo, kugamulanso n’ko chifukwa chakuti chigamulo nchofanana ndi kupuluma. [FLT:]

Mofananamo, ngati woweruza wapereka chigamulo cha kukana mlandu chifukwa cha umboni wosakwanira, boma silingapereke chigamulo chimenecho ndi kutsutsa woimbidwa mlanduyo.

Chiphunzitso cha Mfumu Zopatukana

Mwinamwake malire aakulu kwambiri pa chitetezo chapaŵiri ndiwo "uchifumu wa munthu aliyense" kapena "achifumu ogaŵanikana" chiphunzitso. Chifukwa chakuti boma la boma ndi boma lililonse ndizo maulamuliro osiyana, Five Amendment siletsa boma kuweruza munthu kaamba ka khalidwe limene laperekedwa kale ndi boma, ndipo mosiyana. Chimodzimodzinso ndi kuweruza kotsatizana kwa maboma osiyanasiyana kaamba ka ka kachitidwe kamodzimodziko, malinga ngati ulamuliro uliwonse uli ndi chifuno chokulira kuweruza mlanduwo.

Mwachitsanzo, ngati munthu walandanso banki imene ili yovomerezeka ndi boma, onse aŵiri boma (pansi pa lamulo la boma lakuba m’banki) ndi boma (pansi pa lamulo la boma lakuba) angapereke mlandu. Kukhululukidwa kapena chigamulo m’khoti lina sikumaletsa lina. Khoti Lapamwamba linatsimikiziranso chiphunzitso chimenechi mu [FLT: 0]]. United States ndi 139 S. 1960 Ct (209), likukana chitokoso kuchotsa chifupifupi zaka 170 za chitsanzo. Otsutsa kuti ulamuliro wosiyana ndi wina umapeputsa chitetezero cha kaŵiri, koma Khotilo nthaŵi zonse lakhulupirira kuti wolamulira aliyense ali ndi ufulu wodziimira malamulo ake.

Zovuta Zothandiza za Ulamuliro Waukulu

Kupatula kumeneku kuli ndi ziyambukiro zazikulu za ntchito ya lamulo. Mlandu wapamwamba, ozenga milandu kaŵirikaŵiri amagwirizanitsa milandu ya boma ndi ya boma kuwonjezera kuthekera kwa kuvomerezedwa. Mwachitsanzo, pambuyo pa kukhululukidwa kwa apolisi m'khoti la boma kaamba ka kuphedwa kwa George Floyd, boma linabweretsa zinenezo za ufulu wa boma — mlandu wa boma wogawidwa womwe sunaletsedwe ndi ngozi yoŵirikiza kaŵiri. Mofananamo, oweruza a boma achita mlandu wotsutsa oimbidwa mlanduwo atatsutsa chigamulocho.

Nthawi zambiri nkhani zokambirana za anthu ozenga mlandu zimaphatikizapo mapangano amene amakwaniritsa milandu ya boma ndi boma kuti apeŵe kuzengedwa mlandu kotsatizanatsatizana, ngakhale kuti mapangano amenewo sakufunika mwalamulo.

Kusiyana kwa Makhalidwe ndi Mayendedwe Amodzimodziwo

Maupandu aŵiri okha amakhozetsa mlandu wotsatizana wa mlandu umodzi . Siiletsa boma kuweruza woimbidwa mlandu ndi maupandu ambiri ozikidwa pa kachitidwe kolakwika kofanana, malinga ngati upandu uliwonse uli ndi chinthu chimene wina sakufuna. Kuyesa ngati milandu iŵiri imodzimodzi imachokera ku [[FLT:] Statburger v. United States , U.S. 299 (1932): ngati mlandu uliwonse ufuna umboni wa mbali ina imene inayo siitero, kumalingaliridwa kukhala mlandu wosiyana ndipo ungatsukidwe motsatirana.

Mwachitsanzo, kuyendetsa galimoto kamodzi kokha kotsatira imfa kungaikidwe mlandu monga kuphedwa ndi anthu kwapanyumba chifukwa chakuti DUI ikufuna umboni wa kuledzera (chinthu chimene sichikufunika kuti munthu aphedwe ndi mtima) ndi kupha munthu wina wa m’thupi lake kumafuna umboni wa imfa (chinthu chimene sichimafunidwa ku DUI). Woimbidwa mlandu wa DuI angaikidwebe mlandu wa kupha munthu wapakamwa chifukwa cha chochitika chimodzimodzicho.

Kuyesa [1] kumagwiritsidwa ntchito ponse paŵiri milandu yambiri m'kuzenga limodzi ndi milandu yotsatizana. Ngati boma libweretsa milandu m'mayeso osiyana amene akanalingaliridwa kukhala mlandu umodzimodzi pansi pa , mlandu wachiŵiri umaletsedwa — pokhapo ngati umodzi wa wopatukana umagwira ntchito (g, uchifumu woŵirikiza).

Kupitirizabe kwa Anthu ndi Uyang’aniro

Maupandu aŵiri amagwira ntchito kokha ku milandu yachiŵeniŵeni. Malamulo a boma, zilango zauyang'aniro, ndi nkhani zina zosaphwanya lamulo sizimayambitsa chigamulocho, ngakhale ngati nchozikidwa pa mkhalidwe umodzimodziwo umene unayambitsa mlandu waupandu. Komabe, ngati chilango cha boma chikhala chilango chakuti "upandu wachibadwa," makhoti angachione ngati chotere chifukwa cha ngozi ziŵiri. Nkhaniyi inachitika mu United States v. Halper , 490 U.S. 435 (199), koma pambuyo pake khoti linafotokoza mu [FL:].U.U. [2], [47]

Komabe, mfundo imeneyi ikusonyeza kufunika kopenda mmene zinthu zikuyenderadi, osati chabe dzina lake.

Mikhalidwe Yapadera: Juveniles, Usilikali, ndi Colteral Estopel

Zitetezero zaupandu ziŵiri zimafikira ku kupulupudza kwa achichepere, kumene kumalingaliridwa kukhala "upandu". Pamene mwana wapulupudza (kapena kuchotsedwa m'makutu a achichepere), boma silingayambitsenso kupulupudza kwa kachitidwe kamodzimodzi. Komabe, wachichepere angazengedwebe mlandu monga wachikulire wa khalidwe lofanana ngati boma likhala ndi mlandu lisanaloŵetsedwe m'khoti la achichepere.

M’nkhani zankhondo, ziŵalo zautumiki zimatetezeredwa ndi ngozi ziŵiri pokhapo ngati zizengedwa mlandu ndi khoti lamilandu ina pansi pa Direct Code of Military Justice . Chiphunzitso cha uchifumu wa mbali ziŵiri chimagwiranso ntchito ku boma ndi boma pamene mmodzi wa iwo aphatikizapo khoti la malamulo.

Mfundo ina yofunika ndi ilo la lauseleral estopel, limene limaletsa boma kuchotsa nkhani za choonadi zimene zinathetsedwa kwenikweni m'chiyanjo cha woimbidwa mlanduyo asanaimbidwe mlandu. Ngakhale kuti si kuopsa koŵirikiza kaŵiri, imapereka chitetezo chofanana. Mwachitsanzo, ngati woimbidwa mlandu wakuba wamasulidwa chifukwa cha kupezedwa kwa ajuli kuti sanali woukira, boma silingamlange mlandu pambuyo pake chifukwa cha upandu wosiyana umene umafuna umboni wa nkhani imodzimodziyo.

Kukula ndi Mikhalidwe ya Malamulo Posachedwapa

M’zaka zaposachedwapa, makhoti apitirizabe kuwongolera malire a ngozi ziŵiri. Chigamulo cha Khoti Lalikulu mu Gagash v. United States [1] (2017) anatsimikiziranso chiphunzitso cha uchifumu cha mbali ziŵiri, kukana chiphunzitso chakuti Kukonzanso kwa khumi ndi zinayi kunalamulira. Chilungamo Thomas, kuphatikizapo, chinatsutsa kuti tanthauzo lapoyera limalimbikitsa ulamuliro wa mbali ziŵiri, pamene kuli kwakuti Woweruza Gormongdoi adatsutsa, akuchitcha "kusinthasintha kwa" ku Five Amendment.

Chitukuko china chapadera chimaphatikizapo kugwirizana kwa ngozi ziŵiri ndi lamulo la kulephera ndi thamo la loya. Mu Mcnell v. United States [1], 136 S. 2355 (2016), Khoti linachepetsa kumasulira kwa "usilikali" m'nkhani zachinyengo, zimene zinatsogolera ku kuweruzanso oimbidwa mlandu pambuyo poti zikhululukidwa. Boma linaloledwa kuyesanso milandu chifukwa chakuti kugamulako kunazikidwa pa kulakwa kwa lamulo, osati umboni wokwanira.

Makhoti a boma alimbananso ndi nkhani zangozi ziŵiri, makamaka za "kuletsa mlandu wanu" kuchinjiriza mlandu. Maboma ena amalingalira kuzenga mlandu koteroko kukhala kofanana ndi kuzenga mlandu kwa zigaŵenga pazifukwa ziŵiri, kutsekereza mlandu pambuyo pake, pamene kuli kwakuti ena satero.

Palinso mkangano womakula wa kulungamitsa kwa milandu yambiri pansi pa chiphunzitso cha uchifumu cha mbali ziŵiri, makamaka pamene milandu ya boma ndi ya boma ibuka kuchokera ku chochitika chimodzimodzicho. Osuliza akutsutsa kuti ilo likuswa mzimu wa mawu a ngozi ziŵiri, pamene kuli kwakuti ochirikiza amagwirizana kuti kuli kofunika kusungitsa ulamuliro wa boma. Pa 2025, Bwalo lamilandulo silinasonyeze kufunitsitsa kugwetsa lamulo la uchifumu logaŵikana.

Kuvuta kwa Chizoloŵezi cha Malamulo

Kwa maloya otetezera aupandu, kuzindikira malire a ngozi ziŵiri nkofunika popanga zosankha zapadera. Pamene wofuna kuwathandiza ayang'anizana ndi kuzunzidwanso, uphungu uyenera kupenda mosamalitsa ngati ngozi yaikidwa, kaya ngati mlanduwo uli wa "mlandu umodzi," ndi ngati kulakwa kulikonse kukugwirizana. Kulingalira kwakukulu kumaphatikizapo:

  • Kutsata kwa milandu: Nthaŵi zonse pendani ngati milandu yagona pa kuyenera kwapadera kapena chisembwere cha loya. Woimbidwa mlandu amene avomereza kulakwa kwa milandu kaŵirikaŵiri amawononga chitetezero cha ngozi kaŵiri.
  • [[FLT :0] Appals : Ngati chitsimikizo chasinthidwa pa zifukwa zosaonekera, wofufuzayo angayang'anizane ndi mlandu watsopano. Maloya otetezera ayenera kupenda mapindu a apilo motsutsana ndi upandu wachiŵiri ndi chotulukapo chowopsa.
  • Kuvumbula kwa Multi-juristi: m'milandu yokhudza zikondwerero zonse ziŵiri za boma ndi boma, kambiranani zikalata zapadziko lonse zimene zimatsimikizira milandu ya olamulira onse aŵiri. Khulupirirani malonjezano alionse a boma otsutsa kuzengedwa mlandu posinthana ndi chifunsiro cha boma.
  • CParacal estopel: M’mikhalidwe yochepa, kukhululukidwa kusanachitike kungaletse boma kutsimikizira mfundo zina m'mayesero otsatira. Imeneyi ndi chiphunzitso champhamvu koma chochepa chimene chimafunikira umboni wosamalitsa.

Kwa oweruza, mawu aupandu aŵiriwo amaika malire ofunika pa zigamulo zobwezera. Imaletsa kuweruza kobwezera ndi kukakamiza boma kukhazikitsa milandu yogwirizana pa mlandu umodzi pamene kuli kotheka. Kulekanitsa ulamuliro kwaŵiri kumapatsa ufulu wosintha koma kuli ndi ngozi ya kuwonekera kosalungama, makamaka m'nkhani zapamwamba kumene anthu amalingalira kuzenga mlandu wachiŵiri kukhala wapamwamba.

Kumaliza

Maupandu aŵiri ndiwo lamulo lachiweruzo lachigamulo cha Amereka, lolinganizidwira kutetezera anthu ku mphamvu yopambana ya boma. Komabe chitetezo chake sichiri chotheratu. Mabwalo a milandu, kuchonderera, ziphunzitso za achifumu, ndi lingaliro la milandu yosiyanasiyana zonse zimapanga njira zozunzirapo. Makhoti alinganiza mosamalitsa ufulu wa woimbidwa mlanduwo ku kutsimikizira kuti milandu ikulangidwa ndi kuti milandu ikuchitidwa bwino.

Kwa aliyense wophatikizidwa m’dongosolo la chiweruzo chaupandu — kaya monga woimbidwa mlandu, loya, woweruza, kapena wopanga malamulo — kuzindikira kosamalitsa kwa ngozi ya kaŵiri ndi kusatsatira kwake nkofunika. Chiganizocho sichimatsimikizira kuti munthu adzazengedwa kamodzi kokha; chimatsimikizira kuti sadzazengedwa kaŵiri kaamba ka mlandu umodzimodziwo, monga momwe zimafotokozera zaka mazana ambiri za kumasulira kwa lamulo. Pamene malamulo a malo akusintha ndi mavuto atsopano amabuka, malire a ngozi ziŵiri adzapitirizabe kuyesedwa, koma chifuno chake chachikulu sichikusintha: kutetezera munthu wopanda liwongo kuvutitsidwa ndi kutsimikizira kuti boma likhale ndi thayo la kuumbidwa kwa nthaŵi yoyamba.

Kuti muŵerenge mowonjezereka, fufuzani [[FLT: 0] Chidziŵitso cha Chidziŵitso cha Chilungamo cha Malo Oŵirikiza , [[FLT ]Guguedge v. United States lingaliro , ndi Dipatimenti ya Chilungamo 101 tsamba pa ngozi ziŵiri .