Kumvetsa Mphero ya M’chilamulo cha Mpandu

Lingaliro la njira yoyenerera limakhalabe limodzi la maziko aakulu a madongosolo achiweruzo amakono aupandu, makamaka ku United States kumene amasungidwa mu Malamulo a Chisanu ndi 14. Panjira yake yosavuta, imatanthauza kuti boma liyenera kutsatira njira zolungama ndi zokhazikitsidwa lisanamanitse munthu aliyense moyo, ufulu, kapena katundu. Lamulo limeneli limatsimikizira kuti anthu oimbidwa mlandu wa maupandu amachitiridwa chilungamo, kupatsidwa chidziŵitso cha milandu yawo, kupereka mpata woyenerera kumvedwa, ndi kutetezedwa ku zochita za boma zopanda chifukwa cha lamulo. Kwa ophunzira, akatswiri a zamalamulo, ndi aphunzitsi, kuzindikira kozama kwa kachitidwe kachitidwe ka zinthu sikuli kokha maphunziro. Ili kofunika kutetezera umphumphu ndi kuyenerera kwa dongosolo lonse lachilungamo.

Ntchito yoyenerera imagwira ntchito pamiyezo iŵiri yosiyana koma yogwirizana: yosiyana ndi yofunikira. Procedable imayang'ana ntchito yofunikira mmene ya malamulo [1] masitepe ndi zitetezero zimene ziyenera kukhala pamalo pamene boma lichitapo kanthu kwa munthu mmodzi. Kusiyanitsa, kupenda []] lamulo kapena kachitidwe ka boma kena kamaswa zoyenera zapadera, mosasamala kanthu za mmene zimagwiritsidwira ntchito. Ziphunzitso zimenezi zimapanga dongosolo lamphamvu limene limalinganizira boma lachiŵiri2; kutetezera kwapo anthu ndi &817; kusungidwa kwa munthu aliyense payekha.

Maziko Aakulu a Mbiri Yakale Otsatira Zomwe Ziyenera Kuchitika

Lingaliro lakuti kuzenga mlandu kuyenera kukhala kolungama ndi lakuti palibe munthu amene angalangidwe popanda chiŵeruzo chololedwa asanabadwe lamulo la America pa zaka mazana ambiri. Wotchuka kwambiri wotchuka ndi Magna Carta , wotulutsidwa mu 1215, amene analengezedwa mu mutu 39, kuti #8220; palibe munthu waufulu adzagwidwa kapena kuikidwa m’ndende, kapena kuchotsedwa kapena kuthamangidwa, kapena kulandidwa kwa kuima kwake m’njira ina iliyonse, kapena kupitirizabe ndi mphamvu pa iye, kapena kutumiza ena kuchita tero, kusiyapo ndi chiŵeruzo chake chololedwa kapena lamulo la dziko. &822; mawuwa ndi &22; &1; &22; #222;

Malamulo a Chingelezi anawongoleranso mfundoyi kudzera m'zikalata zotchuka monga Kuzindikira Kunenera (1628) [1] ndi ndi . Chingelezi Bill of Rights (1689) , zimene zinathandiza kukhazikitsa malire a ufumu ndi ufulu woyenerera kuyesa. Pamene olamulira a America anapandukira mphamvu zolingaliridwa kukhala zoponderezedwa, zidandaulo zawo zinaphatikizapo kukana zitetezero zamwambo zimenezi. Commergate, yovomerezedwa mu 1791, inakhala chitsimikizo choyamba cha malamulo omveka bwino pa mlingo wa boma: & #82; munthu sadzachotsedwa moyo..., ufulu, kapena katundu, popanda lamulo.

Pambuyo pa Nkhondo Yachiŵeniŵeni, Demendment (1868) ] chinjirizo limodzimodzili linaperekedwa ndi maboma. Chigawo 1 cha kukonza kotchuka chilengezedwa: “ ndipo Boma lililonse lidzalanda munthu aliyense moyo, ufulu, kapena chuma, popanda njira yoikidwiratu ya lamulo; kapena kukana munthu aliyense wokhala m’ulamuliro wake kuchinjiriza malamulo mofanana. ̵ ̴ Incorporation Doctrine, ” Kukula kwa Khoti Lapamwamba pa zaka za zana la makumi aŵiri, pang'onopang'ono, linagwiritsira ntchito mbali zambiri za Bill ya ufulu wa ufulu wa anthu kupyola m'makwawando wa Klasssmetic Demetics , kutsimikizira kachitidwe kaungwe kaungwe kaunyizidwe kaunyinyinyi wa dziko lonse la U.

Mmene Makina Amakhalira: Makina Opanga Zinthu Mwachilungamo

Kodi Tifunika Kuchita Chiyani?

Kulinganiza koyenera kumafuna kuti boma lipereke chidziŵitso chokwanira ndi kumvetsera kwatanthauzo lisanamanize munthu wachidwi. M'nkhani za apandu, zimenezi zimatembenuza maufulu atsatanetsatane amene akugwira ntchito kuyambira panthaŵi ya kumangidwa mwa kuchonderera. Khoti Lapamwamba la U.S. lakhazikitsa mayeso osinthasintha, otchuka kwambiri mwa [FLT: 0] Mathews v. Eldridge [66][FL:1], kugamula zimene zitetezero za pulogalamu zikufunikira mwalamulo. Makhoti atatu amayesa: (1) chiwongola dzanja chaumwini, (2) ngozi ya kusoŵa zinthu zofunikira pakalipo ndi mtengo wowonjezereka wa chitetezo, ndi (3) kuwonjezerapo, ndi kuthandizira kwa boma, kuphatikizapo ndi kuyendetsa katundu.

Komabe, oimbidwa mlandu amalandira chitetezo chokulirapo chifukwa chakuti ufulu, osati katundu yekha, uli pangozi, osati chifukwa cha kulakwa kwake.

Chitetezo Chachinsinsi pa Milandu ya Apandu

  • Notice of Lances : Lamulo la Chisanu ndi chimodzi likutsimikizira kuti woimbidwa mlandu adzadziŵitsidwa za mkhalidwe ndi chochititsa chake. Izi zikutanthauza kuti boma liyenera kupereka chikalata chachindunji, cholembedwa chotsutsa chikalata choimbidwa mlandu.
  • [[FLT: 0] Kulunjika ku Uphungu: Nkhani yosintha zinthu Gedeon v. Wainright (1963) adakhulupirira kuti Kusintha kwa Sikisi kumafuna kuti boma lipereke maloya kwa oimbidwa mlandu wowopsa. Zosankhazo zimawonjezera chigamulo chimenechi ku mlandu uliwonse umene ungaperekedwe ([[[FLT: 4)] Argeringing v. Hamlin[FL:5], 1972]. Kuyenera kwa kupereka uphungu kumagwiranso pa magawo ovuta. Kufunsa, ndi kuchonderera.
  • Kuchinjiriza Kulimbana ndi Kudziloŵetsa Kokha: Kusintha kwachisanu kumatsimikizira kuyenera kwa kukhala chete. Mu Miranda v. Arizona (1966]], Bwalo Lapamwamba linagamula kuti apolisi ayenera kudziŵitsa kuti ali ndi ufulu umenewu, limodzi ndi kumanja kwa loya kwa loya kwa loya, asanafunse mlandu. Kulephera kuchita zimenezo kungapereke chivomerezo chilichonse chomveka.
  • Kulunjika ku Tsankho la Rwiza ndi la Anthu: Mpambo wa Sikisi ukutsimikizira kuti oimbidwa mlandu sakuvutika m’ndende kuyembekezera kuzengedwa mlandu ndi kuti milandu njotseguka kuti ifufuzidwe kwa anthu. Khoti mu Barker v. Wingo[FLD :3] adakhazikitsa mayeso anayi opimira oyesera mwamsanga: utali wa kuchedwa, chifukwa chozengereza, woimbidwa mlandu ̱ kulondola kumanja, ndi kukondera kwa woimbidwa mlandu.
  • Kulunjika ku Jury wosakondera: Mpambo wa Azindikiro wa Sixth Utsimikizira kuzenga mlandu ndi juli yopanda tsankho yosankhidwa kuchokera ku mtanda woimira chitaganya. Voir wakuda, kachitidwe ka oweruza, amalola maloya kukayikira ndi kutokosa othekera kaamba ka kukondera.
  • Kumanja kwa Mboni za Chitsutso ndi Chikumbu: Chitsutso cha Malamulo a Sikisi chimapatsa oimbidwa mlandu kuyenera kwa mboni zotsutsa. C Primp Proce Claus Express imalola oimbidwa mlandu kugwiritsira ntchito khoti la’ mphamvu yobweretsa mboni zabwino kuti apereke umboni.
  • Kuimira Umboni (Wofuna Kukayikira Koyenera): Docondal Claus amafunikira kuchitiridwa mlandu kutsimikizira mbali iriyonse ya upandu mosakaikira koyenera ( Mu Rewinship, 1970). Umenewu ndi muyezo wapamwamba koposa wa umboni m’lamulo la ku America, kusonyeza zotulukapo zowopsa za chigamulo chaupandu.
  • Kuchinjiriza Kulimbana ndi Kupasaŵiri: Mpambo wa Zamphumphu wachisanu umaletsa boma kuzenga munthu mlandu umodzimodziwo kaŵiri pambuyo pa kukhululukidwa kapena kuvomerezedwa, ngakhale kuti kusakhalako kuli kwa olamulira osiyana (chiphunzitso cha uchifumu wa munthu).

Njira Yaikulu Yoyenerera: Ufulu

Pamene kuli kwakuti ntchito yofunikira imakhudza chilungamo m’madongosolo a boma, njira yofunikira yofufuzira ngati lamulo kapena ntchito ya boma yeniyeniyo ikuswa zoyenera zapadera. Khoti Lapamwamba lamasulira za Malamulo za Claus kuti zitetezere ufulu wina umene uli ndi ̴impictit m'chiphunzitso cha ufulu wolamulidwa” ( Platko v. Connecticut, 1937 [#8220]; wozama kwambiri mu Nation ’ mbiri ndi mwambo „ ([FL:1]; [[FLT]] .SHPTH.[FFFF:]

M'malamulo aupandu, njira yofunikira yapadera imagwiritsiridwa ntchito kaŵirikaŵiri kutokosa malamulo osatsimikizirika kapena odziwikitsa. Ili ndi “ yopanda chiphunzitso chosadziŵika bwino̵ imafuna kuti malamulo aupandu apereke chidziŵitso choyenera cha khalidwe loletsedwa ndi kupereka miyezo yomveka bwino kuletsa kusungitsa. Mwachitsanzo, mu [FLT: 0] Mum'zikiti za Chicago. [[FLT:] [FLT] [1999] [1999], Khoti linakantha gulu laupandu monga losaloleza chifukwa chakuti linapatsa apolisi nzeru yopambanitsa. [FLT], [1] [3]

Chizindikiro cha Khoti Lalikulu Chotsutsa Mchitidwe Woyenerera m’Chilamulo cha Upandu

Kusintha kwa zinthu kukhoza kumveka popanda kufufuza zigamulo za khoti Lalikulu zimene zinathandiza kuti malamulo a m’Baibulo azikhala ndi tanthauzo.

Gideon ndi Wainwright (1963)

Clarence Earl Gideon anaimbidwa mlandu wa kuswa ndi kuloŵa mu Florida. Polephera kulipira loya, pempho lake la uphungu woikidwa linakanidwa chifukwa Florida inangopereka maloya okha m'milandu ya imfa. Kuimira iye mwini, Gideoni anaimbidwa mlandu ndi kuweruzidwa kukhala zaka zisanu. Pa chigamulo chimodzi, Khoti Lalikulu linanena kuti, Lamulo la Sikisi la Kukonzanso ndilo ufulu wofunika kwambiri kuti mlandu usaikidwe bwino ndipo likugwira ntchito ku makhoti a boma kudzera m'makhoti 145th Amendment Admist Processs Clace mu dziko lonse.

Miranda ndi Arizona (1966)

Ernesto Miranda anamangidwa chifukwa cha kuba anthu ndi kugwirira chigololo, ndipo atafunsa mafunso kwa maola aŵiri, adasaina chikalata chovomereza chimene chinali ndi mawu akuti anali ndi “ chidziŵitso chokwanira cha ufulu wanga walamulo. ̵ Bwalo, m'chigamulo 5-4, linakhazikitsa kuti mwaŵi wa Kukonza Kolamulira Koyamba motsutsana ndi kudzipha okha, ungafunikire lamulo loletsa kudziŵitsa ufulu wawo asanaikidwe. Tsopano lija lachikonso Mandanda. [[#1:] &812]; kuyenera kukhala chete, kuti chilichonse chikanenedwa chikachitidwe motsutsana ndi inu, kumanja kwa woimira, ndi woimira ufulu wa kuikidwa kukhala ndi woimira pa udindo.

Maryland (1963)

John Brady anaimbidwa mlandu wakupha pambuyo pa kuweruzidwa ku imfa, ndipo mlanduwo unasunga umboni wakuti mnzakeyo anaululadi kupha. Khoti Lapamwamba linatsutsa kuti Auth Process Claus amafuna kuti oweruza aulule umboni wabwino wakuti ali ndi mlandu kapena chilango. Iyi ̴ Brady gray ” imaika ntchito yopitirizabe kwa oimira mlanduyo kutembenuza umboni wopereka mlandu, ndipo kuswa kwake kungatsogolere ku ku kutsutsa zigamulo, monga momwe kuwonekera m'nkhani ngati [[FLT:]. Green [FLT:]

M’kupambananso (1970)

Khotilo linapereka chikaikiro chomveka pa milandu ya ana yophwanya malamulo, likumati lamulo la Active Process Claus linafuna muyezo wapamwamba wofananawo wa umboni kwa achichepere ndi kwa achikulire chifukwa chakuti zotulukapo (zonena za ufulu) zinalinso zowopsa.

Zotsatirapo Zake: Zikalata za Upandu

Kuzindikira mmene njira yoyenerera imagwirira ntchito mwa kuyendera njira ya chiweruzo cholungama cha apandu nkofunika kwambiri kwa madokotala ndi ophunzira omwe.

Kumangidwa ndi Kulandirira Mabuku

Kumangidwa kuyenera kuchirikizidwa ndi chochititsa, chiyeneretso chozikidwa pa Kusintha kwa Zakumapeto kwa Chachinayi koma chogwirizana kwambiri ndi njira yoyenerera. Atamangidwa, woimbidwa mlanduyo ayenera kuperekedwa kwa woweruza popanda kuchedwa kosafunikira (̴ Gerstein akumva, ̵ kuchokera ku [FL:0] Gerstein v. Pugh, 1975) kuti aone ngati pali zifukwa zochirikiza kutsekedwa.

Kuonekera Koyamba ndi Msana

Pa kuonekera koyamba, woimbidwa mlandu amauzidwa za milanduyo, amauzidwa za ufulu wawo, ndi kupatsidwa mpata wa kutsimikiza za belo. Mpando wa Kusintha kwa Malamulo wa Eighth umaletsa belo lopambanitsa, koma njira yoyenerera imafunikira kuti kutsekeredwa kulikonse kwa milandu kulungamidwe ndi kupezedwa kwa upandu wa kuthaŵa kapena ngozi kwa chitaganya ( United States v. Salerno[FLD:1], 1987). Maboma ambiri tsopano amagwiritsira ntchito ziwiro zaupandu zapansi za chikole cha mlanduwo kudziŵitsa zigamulo, ngakhale kuti nkhaŵa za kukondera kwa fuko ndi chilungamo zabuka.

Kuyamba Kumva Kapena Kumva Zakudya Zam’tsogolo

Pa milandu ya mlandu, Lamulo Lachinayi limafunikira kuweruzidwa koyambirira kapena kuweruza kofulumira ndi ajuli aakulu. Kuweruza koyamba kumalola woweruza kugamula ngati chochititsa chichilikiza mlanduwo; kuchinjiriza kungapereke mboni zowomberana ndi aexamine ndi umboni wopereka. juli yaikulu, yogwiritsiridwa ntchito m’milandu ya boma ndi maiko ena, imamva umboni woperekedwa ndi wozenga mlandu ndi kusankha kaya kupereka mlandu (chikalata chenicheni).

Kupatsidwa Mlandu

Woimbidwa mlandu amaŵerengedwa mwalamulo zinenezozozo ndi kupemphedwa kuloŵa m’chipembezo (cholakwa, osati cha mlandu, kapena chakupanda mpikisano).

Kutulukira ndi Zoyenda

Kufufuza kokhudza boma kumafuna kuti munthu adziwe mfundo za m’Baibulo: Woweruzayo ayenera kuulula umboni wokhudza anthu amene achita umboni, mpambo wa umboni, ndiponso malipoti a akatswiri.

Kuzengedwa Mlandu

Mlandu weniweniwo ndiwo njira yoyenerera yodziŵira. Woimbidwa mlanduyo akusangalala ndi lingaliro la kukhala wopanda liwongo, wozenga mlanduyo ayenera kutsimikizira kukhala ndi liwongo mosakaikira koyenera, ndipo wotetezerayo angapereke mlandu wake, mboni za aexamine, ndi kutsutsana ndi ajuli. Malangizo a Jury ayenera kulongosola lamulo molondola, ndipo woweruzayo ayenera kukhala wosakondera.

Kupereka ndi Kukopa

Pambuyo pa chikhulupiriro, njira yoyenerera imafunikira kuti chiŵeruzo chikhale chozikidwa pa umboni wodalirika ndi kuti woimbidwa mlanduyo ali ndi mwaŵi wa kupereka zinthu zoyenerera. Apprendi [1] Mzera wa zochitika (] Alleppndi v. New Jersey [FLT:]] 2000, [FLT:]]; [FLT] Blappy v. Washington], 2004; [[FLT:]] Alleyne v. United , 2013]) imasunga kuti nsonga iliyonse imene ikuwonjezera chiganiŵero choyenera kusonyezedwa kupyola chikaikizo choyenera. Chikayikiro cha kubwereranso, ndi kuukira kwa lamulo lalamulo lalamulo la lamulo lachigawalo (palppes) losalonze pa chiwongo.

Mavuto Amene Adzabwere

Ngakhale kuti ntchito yake imakhala yokhazikika, ntchito yake imakhala yovuta kwambiri m’dziko lamakono lochitira milandu zaupandu.

Kusiyana kwa Fuko ndi Makhalidwe a Zachuma

Kufufuza kokhazikika kumasonyeza kuti oimbidwa mlandu Akuda ndi Aspanya ali othekera kwambiri kumangidwa, kuimbidwa mlandu waukali kwambiri, kupereka mapangano oyenera, ndi kupatsidwa chilango chaukali kuposa oimbidwa mlandu achiyera pa milandu yofanana. Kupanda kulemera kumatanthauza kuti oimbidwa mlandu wosakwanira kaŵirikaŵiri amalandira zisonyezero zalamulo zochepera kuchokera kwa otetezera a boma aunyinji a ̬ kuwopseza mwachindunji kwa Gideon [1] Lonjezero. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Kutsekemera kwa Manda ndi Kupanga Mafuta

Milandu yoposa 90 peresenti ya upandu imathetsedwa mwa kutsatizana, osati mayeso. Milandu yambiri, kuphatikizapo zigamulo zosiyanasiyana pakati pa ziperekero ndi zilango zapambuyo pa milandu, zimayambitsa chitsenderezo chachikulu pa oimbidwa mlandu kuti achotse ufulu wawo. Otsutsa amanena kuti dongosololi limapanga ngakhale oimbidwa mlandu osalakwawo kulamula kuti apeŵe kuikidwa paupandu wa chilango cha adrakoni, kuchepetsa njira yoyenera.

Kupangidwa kwa Zipangizo zamakono

Demendment yachinayi ’ zitetezero zoletsa kufunafuna kosayenera ndi kugwidwa ndi maumboni a magetsi. Khoti Lapamwamba layesa kusintha, kulamulira mu Riley v. California (Kuli kwakuti apolisi amafunikira chilolezo cha kusanthula foni ya m'maselfoni kuti agwire, ndipo mu [FLT] Carpenter v. United States ] (20:8) kuti apeze chidziŵitso cha mbiri yakale ya cell-site ifuna chilolezo chochirikizidwa ndi chothekera. Komabe, luso latsopano lauka monga kudziŵidwa kwa nkhope, kuŵerengera mapulogalamu, ndi kukweza laisensi ya mapepala a galimoto za oŵerenga mafunso ongopekedwa, chikalata chofufuzira, chikalata choyesera kuyesa kuyesa, ndi kuyesa kuyangiza.

Kusamukira ku Dziko Lina ndi Malire a Zochita Zoyenera

Kuloŵa m'dziko sikuli kochitidwa ndi chitetezo chonse cha upandu. Anthu osafika m'dziko angasungidwe popanda mgwirizano, sangakhale ndi mpata wokwanira wopereka uphungu (umene sulamulidwa ndi boma), ndi kuchotsedwa pansi pa zothodwetsa za umboni. Khoti Lapamwamba lazindikira kuti kumangidwa kwanthaŵi yaitali kungawononge njira yofunikira, koma maulendowo adakali opikisana.

Kulimbitsa Zomwe Zidzachitike M’tsogolo

Kuteteza ndi kufutukuka kwa njira yofunikira kumafuna khama logwirizana. Sukulu za malamulo zingagogomezere njira zaupandu za lamulo monga njira yochitira mpikisano. Opanga malamulo ayenera kusungitsa madongosolo a anthu otetezera mokwanira, kuchotsa ziganizo zofunikira zimene zimapotoza kufunsira, ndi kufuna kuwonekera ndi kuŵerengera m'kupanga malamulo. Njira zina zozikidwa pa chitaganya kuweruza, zonga ngati kukonzanso chilungamo, zingapereke mtundu wowonjezereka waumunthu ndi woŵerengera mlandu umene umalemekeza miyezo yoyenera.

Kaamba ka kuŵerenga kowonjezereka ndi ziŵiya zamphamvu, fufuzani [[FLT: 0] . . . . . . . .[FLT :3], [ Ufulu wa kusuliza . [[FLT:] [FLT] [[FLT:] .[FLT:] [kutsegula ndi kupeta, ndi [[FLT:]] Ufulu wa kusuliza kwa osulizidwa. [FLT:][FLT][FLT:][FLT]

Kaya ndinu wophunzira wokonzekera kaamba ka ndandanda ya mapulogalamu, mphunzitsi wokonzekera maphunziro, kapena nzika yodera nkhaŵa, kuzindikira ndi kuchirikiza njira yoyenera kumakhala ntchito yofunika koposa m’chitaganya cha demokrase chimene chimakhumba chilungamo kwa onse.