Kutanga: Bhuku Rekodzero Nebasa Raro Mumutemo Mukuru Wokuranga

Bill of Rights (Zvekugadziridzwa kwegumi zvokutanga kuUnited States Constitution) yakatenderwa muna 1791 kudzivirira rusununguko rwomunhu mukurwisana nehurumende inonyengera. Nepo idzi gadziridzo dzakafungwa pakuvamba kudzivirira vagari vemo pachiremera chehurumende, kushandiswa kwadzo kwakakura kwamazana amakore kuti kubatanidza vamwe vagari vemo vasina dziviriro zvikurusa mugadziriro yeruramisiro yeAmerica, kubatanidza vasungwa vakatongerwa rufu. Kuwirirana kweChibvumirano chekodzero nechirango chorufu kunomirira imwe yenharaunda dzakakwikwikwidzwa zvikurusa dzomutemo wemitemo, umo mibvunzo yechiremera chomunhu, maruramiro etsika, uye ganhuriro dzesimba rehurumende dzinowirirana. Nokuti vasungwa vari pamutsetse worufu, idzi nheyo hadzisi nheyo dzomutemo asi mutsetse wokupedzisira dzokuzvidzivirira mukurwisana nechiito chokusashanda.

Chirango chorufu chave chiripo muAmerica chifo chenhambo yehurumende inotongwa nehurumende, asi gadziriro yapamutemo yakaipoteredza yakatanga zvinoshamisa. Bill of Rights, zvikurukuru kurambidzwa kweSendreh Amendment kunorambidza utsinye uye kusiri kwenguva dzose, kutemerwa kweGadziro yeFita, kuvimbisa kwapachishanu, uye kodzero yeSikisith Amendment kukutonga kwakarurama, yazova chinhu chinokosha kunhau yose yedzimbahwe. Kunzwisisa kuti gadziriro idzi dzinoshanda sei kunzvimbo yerufu dzinoteverwa vasungwa kunoda kuongorora zvose zviri munhoroondo yenhau nehondo dzepamutemo dzenguva ino. Nyaya ino inogovera kuongororwa kwakadzamao kudzivirira kwapamutemo kunowanika kuvakuru vakuru vevasungwa uye vasungwa vanoshurikidzwa, zvisarudzo zvedare guru zvakaumba kudzivirira ikoko, uye nharo dzinopfuurira dzinorondedzera iyi pamutemo.

Nhoroondo: Bhizi Rekodzero Nechirango Chikuru Pakavambwa

Apo Bill of Rights yakabvumirwa muna 1791, chirango chorufu chakanga chisati chiri bedzi chapamutemo asi muitiro. Dare rokutanga, iro rakakarakadza kugadziriswa, rakabvumirawo chirango chorufu nokuda kwemhaka dzomubatanidzwa dzakadai sokupara mhosva, kupandukira, uye kuponda. Eighth Amendment, iyo inorambidza "kuranga uye zvirango zvisiri zvenguva dzose," rakagamuchirwa pasina kurukurirano huru, uye vagadziri varo havana kudokuronga kubvisa chirango chorufu. Panguva iyoyo, kuuraya kwakanga kuri zviitiko zvavose, uye mitoo yakadai sokuturikwa, kupiswa, uye kukwezvurwa kwepadanda, uye kushatirwa kwechine chimwe chinhu kwakanga kuchingoshandiswa mumapoka akasiyana - siyana.

Zvisinei, Dare reHendreth Amendment rakatangwa muChirungu Bill of Rights ya1689, iyo yairambidza "kurova uye zvirango zvisiri zvenguva dzose" mukupindura kushata kwemirayiro yeStuart. matare eEngland akanga adudzira iyi gadziriro kuisa zvirango zvaipesana nemhosva kana kuti zvairwadza zvisina kufanira. Vagadziri veAmerica vakatengesa nheyo iyi, asi vakasiya revo yayo chaiyo kuzvizvarwa zvomunguva yemberi. Nokufamba kwenguva, Dare Repamusorosoro raizodudzira chinyorwa chipenyu chine revo inochinja maererano ne"mipimo inochinja yetsika yetsika inoratidzirwa kufambira mberi kwenzanga," chitsauko chokutanga chakanyorwa mu [[FLT:].[FLD]

Nokuda kwenhau zhinji dzeAmerica, Bill of Rights yakagovera dziviriro shomanene kuvasungwa panzvimbo dzorufu. Releh Amendment haina kushandiswa kunyika kutozosvikira chisarudzo cheDare Gurusa Robinson v. California [1962], iyo yakabatanidza kugadziridzwa kweMitemo yePendeko yeMitemo ye 145 Claus. Pamberi pezvirango zvorufu zvakanga zvisingatapurwi necherekedzo yomutemo. Kunyange pashure pokunge Dare raramba kuranga kwechipiri kwehurumende, raisiya vasungwa nematare mashoma apamutemo kudenha mitongo yavo kana kuti migariro yokuvanzwa.

Kugadziridzwa Kwemitemo Kwechisere uye Kudzivirirwa Pakurangwa Noutsinye Nechirango Chisiri Chomuzvarirwo

Dare reMitemo Resere ndiyo dziviriro inokosha zvikurusa yebumbiro remitemo nokuda kwavasungwa vanosungwa mumutsara worufu. Rugwaro rwaro ipfupi("" bhero yemari yakawandisa haisati ichizodikanwa, kana kuti faindi yakawandisa inopiwa, kana kuti zvirango zvoutsinye nezvisiri zvenguva dzose zvakaitwa" asi kushandiswa kwaro kwakaparira mazana emirangariro yeDare Gurusa. Chirambidzo chinorwisana nechirango chechienzi chakadudzirwa kuva zvikamu zvitatu zvezvirango: izvo zvine utsinye kana kuti zvinobatanidza kutambudza, izvo zvinopesana noutsotsi, uye izvo zvinoiswa nenzira inopesana kana kuti nenzira isina kufanira.

Mitoo Yokuuraya Neyengozi

Revo yapakuvamba ye "rumano nerwechienzi" inobatanidza zvirango zvaibatanidza kutambudza kana kuti kufa kunononoka. Muzana ramakore rechisere, izvi zvaibatanidza kupisa padanda, kutyora vhiri, kudhirowa nokunyora zvidimbu. Sezvo mitoo yokuuraya yaishanduka, matare aifanira kusarudza kana unyanzvi hutsva husati hwaputsa Eighth Amendment. Kuparadza, gasi rinouraya, uye jekiseni rine ngozi zvose zvakashorwa, nemisi inochinja - siyana yebudiriro.

Mu Wilkerson v. Utah (1879], Dare Gurusa rakatsigira kuurawa kupfurikidza neboka rinopfura, richicherekedza kuti wakanga uri mutoo unozivikanwa navose wokuuraya uye haana kubatanidza "utsinye husiri madikanwa" Mu [ muKemler[[FLT:] [1890] [890], Dare rakatsigira kusarudzwa somutoo wemitemo, richiramba kutaura kwokuti raiita chirango chine utsinye nechisina kufanira. Idziro dzapakuvamba dzakapa chisarudzo chakafara chokusarudza mitoo yokuuraya. Zvisinei, nzvimbo yapamutemo yakachinja zvinoshamisa mukupera kwezana ramakore rechimakumi maviri (8: 3) seuchapupu hwezvokurapa uye hwesayenzi hwakakwidza pamusoro pokurwadziwa nokutambura.

Nguva yazvino uno yeSendment digitation yeSeth Amendment pamusoro pemitoo yokuuraya yakavamba ne Baze v. Rees [2008], umo Dare Gurusa rakatsigira miraudzo yejekiseni ine mishonga mitatu inouraya. Dare rakatanga mupimo unoraira: mutoo wokuuraya unoputsa mitoo yeSendromend Remendment bedzi kana ukapa ngozi yekuvadziko yakakomba" uye pane "isingachinjiki, inoitwa nyore nyore" iyo ingaderedza zvikuru ngozi iyoyo. Mupimo uyu wakabvumikisa kuva wakaoma nokuda kwevasungwa vanofa kusangana, sezvo vanofanira kuziva mutoo unowanika uripo uye kuratidzira kuti mutoo wazvinoparira ngozi isina kufanira yokurwadziwa.

Nguva pfupi yapfuura, Gross (2015), Dare rakatsigira kushandiswa kwemirimo medicazolam serutivi rwemitemo yemirimo mitatu, pasinei zvapo noufakazi hwokuti mushonga wacho ungasaparira kusaziva. Dare rakatonga kuti vasungwa vakanga vakundikana kuziva mutoo unozivikanwa uye uripo. Mu Brucklew v. Precy [2010]), Dare rakapfuudzirazve kuti mutoo unodenha kuuraya unofanira kuratidza kuti mutoo wokutsiva ndiwo "unoita zvakanaka uye unoshandiswa nyore" uye kuti ungaita kuti shonge ngozi huru yemarwadzo aya.

Chirango Chokuzvitutumadza

Dare reHereth Amendment rinorambidzawo zvirango zvisingaenzaniswi nemhosva. Muchirango chorufu, iyi nheyo yakashandiswa zvakasimba zvikurusa kuganhurira kuti mapoka api avapari vemhosva anogona kutongerwa rufu. Mu Coker v. Georgia[ [777], Dare Rapamusoro rairangarira kuti chirango chorufu chirango chikurusa nokuda kwokubatwa chibharo kwomukadzi akura, nemhaka yokuti mhaka yacho haina kubatanidza kutora upenyu hwomunhu. Dare rakarangarira kuti "rufu rwakasiana" nezvimwe zvirango uye rinofanira kuchengetwa nokuda kwemhosva dzakakomba zvikurusa.

Mu End v. Florida [19982], Dare rakaramba kuti Dare reHeleth Amendment rinorambidza chirango chorufu nokuda kwomukwiridzirwi uyo akatora rutivi mumhaka iyo yakaguma nokuponda asi isina kuuraya somunhu oga, kuedza kuuraya, kana kuti kuronga kuti kuuraya kuitike. Dare rakakudziridza uku kubata mu TINYS v. Arizona (1987), richitonga kuti chirango chorufu chingaiswa pamuurayi wetsotsi uyo akanga ari "ma jini" mutsinhineti" mukuva munhu asingadi kuraramirwa munhu."

Kuenzana kwenheyo kwakashandiswawo kudzivirira mapoka akati avakwiridziri. Mu Attins v. Virginia (2002], Dare rakaramba kuti kuparadza vanhu vane urema hwendangariro kunopesana neSendment yeHeighth, nemhaka yokuti simba ravo rokufunga rinoderera mutsika dzavo. Dare rakaisiyira kunyika kuti irondedzere urema hwepfungwa, zvichitungamirira kukupfuurira kunzvera mipimo yokunzvera. Nenzira yakafanana, mu r. Simmonds[[FL:]] [200]], Dare rairangarira kuti chirango hachisi chirango cherufu hachina kurondedzerwa nokuda kweva vanhu vakapara mhosva pazera re18, vachidudza mipimo yavo youtsotsi.

Misi ichangobva kupfuura iyi zvikurusa, mu Florida (2014 na Moele v. Texas (2017), Dare rakaputsa mitemo yehurumende yakashandisa zvakasimba IQ coffreainx nhamba kurondedzera kuoma kwendangariro, kuomerera kuti matare anofanira kurangarira mipimo yemipimo yemari uye kubvumira muganhu wemhoshoro mukuedza. Idzi dzinoratidzira kudisa kweDare kuita kuti rete reAvent Refelsedment risairwe kunyange apo nyika dzinoedza kuisa kushanda kwayo.

Kurohwa Nerufu uye Kubatwa Zvisina Kufanira

Museve wechitatu weSendment jurisprudency unonangidzira ngwariro pamaitiro anoisirwa nawo chirango chorufu. Mu Furman v. Georgia [1772], Dare Gurusa redare rakapa murangariro wairangarira kuti chirango chorufu, sokudzorwa kwaidzorwa nemitemo yehurumende iripo, yakaputsa mutemo weReam neWanati. Chirango chacho chakaputsa, nedare rimwe nerimwe ramashanu muzvinyorwa zvizhinji, asi chinhu chikuru chaiva kuti mutongo mukuru wakanga uchidzorwa noudzori. Mutongi Hangeri mukuru akaenzanisa rufu nenzi "kurohwa nemheni," achikarakadza kuti chirango chakaiswa muchimiro chakarongwa uye chitso.

Mumhinduro ku Furman, nyika dzakawanda dzakaita mitemo mitsva yechirango chedangwe chakagadzirirwa kutungamirira kuvhozhokero yedare redare redare uye kuva nechokwadi chokuti chirango chorufu chaichengeterwa nokuda kwenhau dzakanyanyisa. Iyi mirau yaiwanzopfuudzira kutonga kuva mhaka nemhosva, yakapiwa kutungamirirwa kupfurikidza nezvinhu zvinoparira kuuraya, uye yaida kudzokororwa kwechiito chinoshanda. Dare rakatsigira iyi mitemo mitsva mu [[FLT:]] Greggg. Georgia[[FL:]] [12]] [5]]

Zvisinei, Dare rakapfuurira kudzora mutsetse pakati pechisarudzo chinotungamirirwa nokuisa pfungwa. Mu Godfrey v. Georgia (1980), Dare rakakunda mutongo worufu nemhaka yokuti Dare rairondedzera mamiriro ezvinhu enyika akanga asina kujeka zvikuru, akakundikana kugovera nhungamiro ine revo kudare rinobetsera. Maynard v. Cartright [1988], Dare rakarangarira kuti chikonzero chokuponda chaitsanangura kuuraya se "zvinotyisa zvikuru, zvakaipa zvikuru, kana kuti utsinye" chakanga chisina kujeka. Izvi zvisarudzo zvinoda kurondedzera mamiriro ezvinhu akaoma.

Kuronga Zvakakodzera uye Kodzero Yokutongwa Zvakanaka

Kupfuura Dare reRefendment reHereth, Dare reChishanu nerechigumi namana rinovimbisa kuti hapana munhu achanyimwa "upenyu, rusununguko, kana kuti zvinhu, pasina muitiro wakafanira womutemo" Munhau dzine mirau yakakomba, muitiro wakafanira unoda kusanoomerera kururamisirwa kuti urege kusungwa. Dare rapamusoro rasimbisa rasimbisazve kuti "rufu rwakasiana" uye kuti dziviriro dzamagariro dzinodikanwa mumhaka dzorufu dzinoda zvikuru kupfuura munhau dzoutsotsiwo zvadzo.

Kugadzirira Kunoita Kutongwa

Kodzero kukutonga zvakanaka inokosha mumhaka dzose dzoutsotsi, asi kunotora revo huru apo mukwiridziri anotarisana netongero yorufu inobvira. Singth Amendment inovimbisa maruramiro kukutonga kwokukurumidza uye kwokusasarura, dare rinobetsera risingasaruri, kodzero yokutarisana nezvapupu, kodzero yokumanikidzirwa nokuda kwokuwana zvapupu, uye kodzero yokubetsera kwezano. Stickland v. Washington[[FLT] [1914], Dare guru rakasimbisa kuti mukwidzi achitaura kuti betsero inoshanda yezano rinofanira kuratidza kuti kuita zvakanaka uye kuti kusava nemhosva. Mumipimo wekudzivirira. Mumitengo yedzimbahwe inoshatiswa nekashatiswa, uye Dare rakawana kuti zano rinotadza kuongorora, risingapiwiriranwa uchapupu, kana kuti rapa chirango chapiwa muchisarudzo, kana kuti dare rinotonga.

Chitsama chamashoko chakafanira chinodawo kuti vakwiridziri vemakwikwi vagamuchire ziviso yakakwana yepomero nemutongo unobvira, mukana wokupa dziviriro, uye mukana une revo wokudenha ufakazi hwehurumende. Mu Herrera v. Collins [1993], Dare rakataura kuti kusava nemhaka chaiko kwakavakirwa paufakazi huchangobva kuwanwa hakubviri, pachazvo, kubvumira musungwa worufu kuyananiso womubatanidzwa wehurumende weHabeaspus, asi Dare rakasiya bviro yokuti kutaura kwakadaro kungagona kutendwa kupfurikidza neCmmagement. Chisarudzo chacho chakashorwa nokuda kwokuita mhingamuko yokuyamuro inobvira.

Kufambira Mberi Kwakafanira Mufambiro wePuti

Pashure pekupwiswa kworufu netongero, vasungwa vanokwasva rufu vanopfuurira kufarikanya gadziriro yakafanira mukati mohwirudzuro yapashure nokukumbira. Kodzero yokukwidza mutongo worufu haibvumidzwi neBumbiro reMitemo, asi Dare rose rinotonga ramadzimbahwe rinopa chikarakadzo chedzoreso yemasanga, uye Dare Gurusa raida kuti hwirudzuro yakadaro ive ine revo. mutambo wakaisvonaka. Wanwright[[FLT] v] [5] [86] [1986], Dare rairangarira kuti Send Standardgend inorambidza kuurawa kwomusungwa ari kupenga, uye kuti muitiro wakafanira unoda kunzwa zvakanaka pamusoro penhau yenharo. [FLT] Aiwanwation]

Gadziriro yakafanira inodzivisawo muitiro wokusasarura, uko kunobatira senzvero yokupedzisira yedzoro pamitsetse mireve. Mu [Ohio Adern Parole Authoust Authority v. Wooard[ (1998), Dare Gurusa redare rakaramba kuti kuronga kunofanira kudzorwa nezvinodikanwa zvishoma zvakafanira, asi Dare rakaramba kuisa zvinodikanwa zvine udzame, richisiya chisarudzo chakafara kuumba sezvari kuona kuti zvakanaka.

Chiratidzo Chenhau dzeDare Rapamusoro Zvikurusa Dzinoshora Kodzero Dzorufu

[[FURM]Furman v. Georgia (1972)

Iyi mhaka yakaratidzira nguva yakadzorwa mumutemo wechirango chorufu weAmerica. Dare Gurusa, muchisarudzo cha5-4, rakaparadza nenzira inobudirira mirau yose yaivapo, ichitonga kuti kupiwa mhaka kwokuzvidira nokusatenderwa kwechirango chorufu kwakaputsa chirango chorufu chaSere neChine gumi Nezvina. Chisarudzo chacho chakaguma nokudzorwa kwemirairo yerufu inopfuura 600 neraudzo yenyika yose pakuurawa kwakagara kusvikira muna 1976. Nepo Furman] Firman haana kubvisa chirango chorufu chakananga, chinogombedzerwa kutaura kuti kurangarirazve miitiro yavo yokutonga kukuru.

Gregg v. Georgia[[FLT] [1] [77]

Mu Greg nenhau dzayo, Dare Gurusa rakatsigira kutemerwa kwebumbiro remitemo rechirango chorufu pasi pemirairo ichangobva kugadzwa iyo yakagovera nokuda kwemiedzo inodzorwa, kururamisira kwedare, uye kuhwirudzura kunongoerekana kwaitika. Dare rakatonga kuti chirango chorufu chishandise nharidzano dzepeni dzetsika dzapamutemo /Kugovera nokudzivisa, uye kuti dziviriro itsva yemirayiro yakanga yakakwana kudzivisa kuisa mamiriro ezvinhu asina pamutemo. Gregg[[FL:3] nenzira inoshanda makore mana pakuurawa uye rakasimbisazve kuti chirango chedzimbahwe chiri chirango chepamutemo.

Attins v. Virginia (2002]

Mu Atkins, Dare rakati kuparadza vanhu vane urema hwendangariro kunoputsa Eighth Amendment nemhaka yokuti harishandisi donzo rapamutemo retsika uye harina kuenzana nokuderera kwadzo kwetsika. Chisarudzo pamusoro pe [[FLT:] Penry v. Lyntaugh[[FLT]] [1998], icho chakanga chabvumira kuurawa kwavatadzi vakaremara mundangariro. [[FLT:]] Atkins [[FLT:]] Atvo] pamipimo inochinja yetsika, sezvinoratidzirwa nezviito zvehurumende uye pamutemo. Chisarudzo chakatungamirira kukurondedzera nokuoma kwedzidzo.

Roper v. Simmons (2005]

Mu , Dare raidavira kuti chirango chorufu hachisi chibvumirano nokuda kwavapari mhaka vane makore ari pasi pegumi navasere panguva youtsotsi hwavo. Dare rakaratidzira ufakazi hwesayenzi pamusoro pokukura kwouropi hwavachiri kuyaruka, unoratidza kuti vaduku havanyatsokura, vane ngozi zvikuru kudzvinyiriro yavaenzani, uye vanokwanisa zvikuru kugadziridza pane vakuru. Chisarudzo pamusoro pe SSford v. Kentucky [1998] uye vakaunza United States muwirirano nemipimo yamarudzi ose, sezvo United States yakanga iri imwe yenyika shomanene yakaitwa navapariki vematsotsi.

[[NJORO] BHAYIBHELL v. Rees (2008) uye Glossip v. Gross[ (2015)

Idzi nhau dzakatanga gadziriro yazvino uno yemiitiro yokuparadza nayo pasi peSendment. Mu Bluze, Dare rakati mutoo wokuuraya unoputsa Exthmendment bedzi kana ukaparira ngozi huru yekuvadziko yakakomba uye pane chimwe chinhu chingaderedza zvikuru ngozi iyoyo. Mu Glossip[, Dare rakashandisa mupimo uyu kutsigira kushandiswa kweAklasma, richiramba kuti zvinodhaka zvinoparira ngozi yokurwadziwa. Zvisarungairwa kuita kuti zvive zvisingabviri nokuda kwevatonge vasungwa vaikwikwidza kuti vabakwe nenzira inobudirira, sezvinoda kuzivikanwa, kuti varadzirwe nenzira yakananga, zvinoda kuwanika.

[[FFL:0] Backlew v. Precythe (2029)

Mu Bucklew, Dare rakasimbisazve mupimo nokuda kwedenho dzenzira yokuuraya nayo. Dare rakaramba kuti musungwa anodenha mutoo wake wokuuraya anofanira kuziva mutoo unobvira uye unoshandiswa nyore nyore uyo ungaderedza zvikuru ngozi yokurwadziwa kukuru. Dare rakarambawo kutaura kwokuti musungwa angagona kudenha mutoo wokuuraya pahwaro hwake hwoutano hwakasiana, achitonga kuti kuvapo kwomutoo wokutsiva kunofanira kuteverwa mumifungo panzvimbo pehwakavakirwa pamigariro yavanhu vasungwa.

Kunetsana Kwemazuva Ano uye Nhau Dzisina Kugadziriswa

Kupfura Nokuperevedza Kwemirimo

Zvichida nhau inotambudza zvikurusa yepanguva ino muchirango chorufu igakava rinopfuurira pamusoro pemitemo inouraya yejekiseni. Chifo chapakuvamba kwama 2000, makambani emishonga akashora kushandiswa kwemirimo yawo mukuuraya, kuchitungamirira kukuperevedza kwenyika yose kwemirimo yokuuraya. Mumhinduro, nyika dzakawanda dzakashandisa mibatanidzwa isina kuedzwa yemirimo, dzakachengeta kuvanza pamusoro pavagoveri vadzo vemirimo, uye dzakatendeukira kuzvokubatanidza mapirasitiki namanyuko okumwe . Iyi miitiro yakasimudzira muitiro wakakomba neitiro dzeSend Amend Refection.

Vatsoropodzi vanotaura kuti kushandiswa kwemitemo yokuedza mirimo kunoparira ngozi isingagamuchiriki yemarwadzo nokutambura, zvikurukuru apo mapoka anouraya asina rovedzo yezvokurapa. Zvisarudzo zveDare Gurusa mu Glossip[ uye [[FLT]]] . Zvakaita kuti zviomere vasungwa kuwana mishonga nemiitiro zvinoshandiswa, zvichivasiya vasingakwanisi kubvumikisa kuputsa mutemo. Mitemo yechiva, yakadai seyamuOklaho, Texas, neMissouris, kuuraya kupfurikidza nokuongorora dare kune revo. Kushambadza kwemirimo kwakatungamirirawo dzimwe nzira kurangarira nzira, kubatanidza kugadzira mhepo, kupfumba, kupfumba, kupfumba kupfura, kupfura kwama kwemvuro, kuoma kwemvumo imwe neimwe.

Kukwikwidzana Mundangariro Nemhinganidzo Yokusabetsera

Chirambidzo chebumbiro remitemo mukurwisana nokuita vapenga, chakatangwa mu Ford v. Wainwright (1986), chinopfuurira kuparira magetsi. Mupimo wemukwikwidzano unoda kuti musungwa ave nenzwisiso ine mufungo yezvikonzero zvokuuraya kwake, asi matare akarwisa kushandisa uyu mupimo kuvasungwa vane chirwere chakakomba, chirwere chinovandika, kana kuti kuvadziko. Mu Madison v. Alabama[FLT] [[FLT]] [20:9]), Dare rairangarira kuti musungwa ane tsikinharo netso asingagoni kuyeuka mhaka yake akanga akakodzera nemhaka yokuti iye akanga achiurawa.

Chinoitika choutano hwendangariro paboka rorufu chakakomba zvikuru nemhaka yokuti kuva musungwa kwenguva refu mumigariro yakaoma kunogona kuwedzera chirwere chendangariro. Nzvero dzakaratidza kuti vasungwa vazhinji vanourawa vanotambura nevhiringidziko yendangariro yakakomba, uye kuzviparadzanisa uye kudzvinyirirwa kwemutsetse worufu zvinogona kusundira vasungwa muchirwere chendangariro kana kuti kuora mwoyo. Kurambidzwa kweSeeth Amendment kunorwisana noutsinye nechirango chechienzi kungada mamiriro ezvinhu kugovera tarisiro yakakwana youtano hwendangariro kuvasungwa vanosungwa mumutsara wakakomba, asi uku kunofanira kuva kunoramba kuri pachena.

Kusawirirana Kwedzinza Nenzanga Nezvemari

Pasinei zvapo nedziviriro dzebumbiro remitemo dzinopiwa neBill of Rights, misiyano yedzinza nenzanga yenzanga inopfuurira mugadziriro yose yechirango chorufu. Nzvero dzakawanda dzakaratidzira kuti chirango chorufu chinoiswa nenzira isingaenzaniswi pavapomeri vanourawa vanouraya vanyajambwa vechichena, vapomerwi vechiBlack, uye vapomerwi avo vari varombo. Dare Rapamusoro rakabvuma iyi misiyano asi rakaramba kudavira kuti vanoputsa Bumbiro remitemo mukushayikwa kwoufakazi hwerusarurano mumhaka yakati.

Mu Mclekey v. Kemp (1987), Dare rakaramba denho kugadziriro yokutonga huru yeGeorgia yakavakirwa pafundo yakakwana inoratidza kuti vapomeri vakauraya vachena vaiva nebviro huru yokugamuchira chirango chorufu kupfuura avo vakauraya vanyajambwa veBlack. Dare raidavira kuti ufakazi hwemifungo yedzinza yokuparadza, kumira kwoga, hahukukwani kusimbisa Hurumende yeredhiyo kana kuti kuputswa kwakaenzana. Chisarudzo chacho chakatsoropodzwa zvikuru nokuda kwokuisa mutoro usingabviri pavadhereri kuti vatsirwi vabvumikise nenzira yenhema zvikanganiso muzvinoitika zvavo. Somuuyo, nhevedzano yetsika inoramba yakadzorwa zvikuru kupfurikidza nokudzidzwa kwomutemo.

Chimiro chetsika chapamutemo chinewo basa guru mumhaka dzorufu. Vadziviriri avo vasingagoni kupa zano ravoga kazhinji kazhinji vanomirirwa nevashandi vanonyanyoshanda uye vasingapiwi mari yokuita nzvero dzakakwana uye kuisa ufakazi hwapanguva ino. Ruvara rwemipimo yapamutemo rune tapuro yakananga pakuti mukwirirwi anogamuchira mutongo worufu here, asi Bumbiro reMitemo rinovimbisa bedzi kuti zano rive rinoshanda, kwete kuti zano iroro ritsigirwe zvakakwana. Vari kutsigirwa negadziriro dzavose dzedziviriro muhurumende dzakawanda vanoparira ngozi yetsika yokuti vapomerirwi vasina mhaka vachawa nemhaka yekuti kana kuti vawirwi vanoshuvirwa vachatongerwa rufu pasina kuratidzirwa kwapamutemo.

Mutemo Wenyika Dzakawanda Nemipimo Inochinja Yekuora

United States ndiimwe yenyika shomanene dzakabudirira dzinochengeta chirango chorufu, uye kushandiswa kwadzo kwechirango chorufu zvakawana kutsoropodzwa kumasangano ekodzero dzavanhu amarudzi ose nehurumende dzokumwe. Dare Gurusa rakadudza panhambo nenhambo muitiro wamarudzi ose muzvisarudzo zvaro zveHeighth Amendment, zvikurukuru mu r. Dare rakakamuraniswa pamitemo yemitemo yamarudzi ose, uye [[FLT:]] na[FLT] Attins v. Virginia, apo Dare rakacherekedza kuti United States yakanga iri inotanhanhanha-ka pakati pevaenzani nayo. Zvisinei, Dare rakakakamurwa pamitezoro yomutemo wamarudzi ose, namamwe ruramisiro kuti muitiro wokumwe hauna kubatanidzwa nerevo rebumbiro remitemo yemitemo yemitemo.

Chimiro chenyika dzakawanda kuparadzwa kwechirango chorufu chakajeka. Kusvikira muna 2025, nyika dzinopfuura 100 dzakabvisa chirango chorufu nokuda kwemhosva dzose, uye dzimwe dzakawanda dzakarega kushandiswa kwadzo mukushanda. United States inoramba iri imwe yenyika shomanene dzinopfuurira kuuraya vasungwa, pamwe chete neChina, Iran, Saudi Arabia, uye Iraq. Kubvumirana kuri kuwedzera mukurwisana nechirango chorufu kungapesvedzera nguva yemberi yeSendrometerment, sezvo Dare Rapamusoro rinorangarira kana kuti mipimo yetsika inoyera" inobatanidza mipimo yamarudzi ose.

Nguva Yemberi Yedziviriro Yebumbiro remitemo Nokuda Kwevasungwa Vanofamba Mumitsetse Yorufu

Nzvimbo yapamutemo yevasungwa vari pamutsetse worufu inoumbwa nokubatanidza kwedare reDare Gurusa, chiito chemitemo, uye murangariro wavose. Dare razvino uno kazhinji kazhinji kazhinji rinopanikira zvinetso zvenhau dzeSereh Amendment, zvikurukuru mumitoo yokuuraya nayo, uye rakaratidza kunonotswa kugadziriro dzechirango chehurumende. Zvisinei, Dare rakapfuurira kumanikidza dziviriro dzemipimo yemiitiro yetsika mumhaka inobatanidza kurema kwoungwaru, kukwikwikwidza, uye vaparadzi vepwere, zvichikarakadza kuti dziviriro huru dzemitemo yemitemo inoramba yakabatana nechinhu chimwe.

Zviitiko zvinoverengeka pajengachenga zvinogona kudzosa mutemo. Zvinetso kukushandiswa kwenitrogen hypoxia uye dzimwe nzira dzokuuraya itsva sezvingabvira kusvika kuDare mumakore ari kuuya, sezvo nyika dzichiedza dzimwe nzira dzokutsiva jekiseni rinouraya. Nhau yokuti kusungwa kwenguva refu pamutsetse worufu kunoumba chirango chine utsinye uye chechienzi here? (Nhau inorambwa yakaramba ichiridzwa muDare Repamusorosoro kuti idzokerezve muchisarudzo chayo [FLD:] CKP] VFP]

Pakupedzisira, Bill of Rights inogovera gadziriro yokudzivirira maruramiro epamutemo avasungwa vari mumutsara worufu, asi kushanda kwegadziriro iyoyo kunotsamira pakududzira nokudzikamisa dare. Kurambidza kweSeth Amendment kunorambidza kuva noutsinye uye kusiri kwenguva dzose, Pendurement yeshanu inovimbisa muitiro wakafanira, uye kodzero dzeSikisith Amendment yedare midziyo ine simba yokuuraya nenzira isina kuvimbika uye isina kururama. Zvisinei, iyi gadziriro dzemitemo haisi yokuzviuraya yogadziro, uye inoda kungwarira kudzorwa kwekodzero dzemagweta, masangano ekodzero dzavagari vemo, uye matare kuvimbisa kuti chipikirwa cheBricrogistion rekodzero dzekodzero dzemunhu oga oga oga oga oga chinoitwa nokuda kweva musungwa ari wose anotarisana nechirango.

mhedziso

Bill of Rights yakaumba zvikuru kodzero dzepamutemo dzavasungwa vari mumutsara worufu, ichigadza dziviriro dzebumbiro remitemo dzinoganhurira mitoo yokuuraya, dzinorambidza shurikidzo isingachinjiki uye inodzvinyirira, uye dzinovimbisa kururama kwetsika kuti dzirege kutongwa kupfurikidza nokuurawa. Revelh Amendment, zvikurukuru, yave iri nheyo yemitemo yechiratidzo inodzivirira vanhu neurema hwendangariro, vatadzi vechiduku, uye vasungwa vakava vakapenga. Tsinhiro yeDare Repamusoro remitemo inoratidzira mipimo yenzanga nenzwisiso yesayenzi, kunyange sezvo Dare renhau pane dzimwe nguva rakakwevera miganhu yakapinza miganhu yakajeka pamsoro pedziviriro yebumbiro yemitemo.

Pasinei zvapo nedziviriro idzi, denho dzinokosha dzinosara. Kupesana kwedzinza nenzanga yezvemari kunopfuurira kutambudza gadziriro yechirango chorufu. Kuvandika kwakapoteredza kuuraya kunodzora kunosekesa kurangarirwa kwezvinotaurwa nemitemo zvedare zvine revo zvoutsinye nezvisiri zvenguva dzose. Kuperevedza kwemirimo kwakatungamirira nyika kutora mitoo isina kuedzwa uye inorwadza. Dzvidzo yamarudzi ose mukurwisana nechirango chorufu inopfuurira kuwedzera. Chinetso chekodzero dzavanhu choga hachigoni kupedza zvinetso izvi zvakadzika midzi, asi chinoramba chiri chinzvero chinokosha pasimba rehurumende uye manyuko etariro nokuda kwevasungwa vari mumutsetse worufu vanotsvaka ruramisiro.

Sezvo nharo pamusoro pechirango chorufu dzinopfuurira, kodzero dzebumbiro remitemo dzakabatanidzwa muBill of Rights dzicharamba dziri dzinokosha kukurukurirano dzapamutemo nedzetsika.

[[FLT: 0] Nokuda kwokuravazve pamusoro pechirango chorufu cheDare Gurusa, ona rondedzero ye [[FLT: 1] Oyez shooc yenhau dzechirango cherufu [[[FLT:] ne [[FLT:] Fig] Department Information Center [[FLT:]'s Center yeRefect nenhambano[[FLT:]]. Kunzvera kune udzame kwenhau yeremhempment comment, [[FLT] , [FFFLT]] inopa rugwaro rwechipo yenhau [FFFLT] inopa rugwaro rwedare]