Sumo: Cornerstone of Democracy yeBumbiro reMitemo

Kuhwirudzura dare isimba rokunzvera zviito zvamapazu emitemo neanotungamirira ndokushatisa ayo anorwisana nebumbiro remitemo. Ichi chiremera, nepo chisina kududzwa zvakajeka muzvinyorwa zvizhinji zvokuvamba, chazova rutivi rukuru rwekudzora kwebumbiro remitemo razvino uno. Kupfurikidza nokupa simba redare razvimirira kusimbisa ganhuriro dzemitemo, hwirudzuro yemitemo inodzivirira rusununguko rwomunhu oga, kuvimbisa kuzvidavirira kwehurumende, uye kuchengeta kuparadzaniswa kwamasimba. Kuvambira pakutora kwaro kwaro kwapakuvamba muUnited States kusvikira kukugamuchirwa kwaro mumitemo yapamutemo kupota nyika yose, dare rinoyera rinoramba riri chishandiso chine simba uye kazhinji kazhinji chishandiso chinorwisa uteri hwehurumende.

Dzidziso yacho iri panzwisiso huru: mabumbiro emitemo akanyorwa mutemo mukurusa, uye ibasa redare redare kutsanangura mutemo iwoyo apo kakavadzano. Pasina gadziriro yokuita kuti simba rebumbiro remitemo rive guru, bumbiro remitemo rinova zvaro nharidzano dzefungidziro. Kuhwirudzura kwemitemo kunoshandura zvipikirwa zvebumbiro remitemo kuva maruramiro anogombedzerwa. Nyaya ino inonzvera midzi yenhau yehwirudzuro yedare, mabasa aro anokosha mukudzivirira maruramiro uye kudzikamisa, nhau dzemitemo dzakaumba kushandiswa kwaro, uye kutsoropodza kunopfuurira kunyandura kurukurirano pakati penyanzvi navarapi.

Mavambo Enhau Nokukura

Mavambo Apakuvamba Mumutemo weChirungu

Pfungwa yokuti matare anogona kuhwirudzura mutemo wokuwirirana nomutemo wakakwirira usati watangwa. MuEngland, murangariro waSir Edward Coke mu Dr. Case [ [1610] [1610] yakakarakadza kuti “kana chiito cheParamende chinenge chiri mukurwisana nekodzero imwe cheteyo nemufungo, kana kuti chinonyangadza, kana kuti chisingabviri kuitwa, mutemo uchavadzora.” Kunyange zvazvo nheyo iyi isina kutora midzi muUnited Kingdom nemhaka yedzidziso youchangamire hweparamende, yakapesvedzera vagari vemo vakanyora gare gare gare tsika, mutemo mukurusa.

Pakasvika zana ramakore rechigumi namasere, vazivi vemitemo veBritain vakadai saWilliam Blackstone vakabvuma kuti simba remitemo, nepo richiva chigaro, raigona kuganhurirwa nomutemo womusikirwo. Bva vapanduki veAmerica vakapfuura: vakagadzira gwaro iro rakasunga vatambi vose vehurumende uye raigona kuchengetwa namatare akazvimirira.

Marbury v. Madison: The American Breakthrough

Mhaka yakatanhamara ya Marbury v. Madison (103) (1) inorumbidzwa munyika yose nokutanga kuongorora kwokutonga muUnited States. Kunyora nokuda kweDare Gurusa, Mutongi John Marshall akazivisa kuti “ichi chirevo cheruwa nomusero zvedhipatimendi rokutonga kutaura kuti mutemo chii.". Marshall akarangarira kuti Bumbiro reMitemo ndiwo mutemo mukurusa wenyika, uye kuti mutemo upi noupi usingadiwi nayo unofanira kuva usina chinhu. Kunyange zvazvo Bumbiro remitemo risingapi Dare rehwirudzuro, Marshall akataura kuti mugariro umene webumbiro remitemo unoreva chiremera chakadaro.

Gakava rapakarepo(naye William Marbury akanga ane maruramiro kubasa rake seruramisiro yorugare() rakasarudzwa nenzira yakadzivisa bonderano naPrezidhendi Thomas Jefferson. Kupfurikidza nokuwana kuti mutemo unopa Dare simba rapakuvamba pamirwi yemandamus wakaputsa Chikamu III, Marshall akatanga hwirudzuro yedare panguva imwe cheteyo ndokuratidzira ganhuriro yokutonga. Kurava nhau yakazara paOyez[[FLT]].

Kupararira Kwenyika Yose Kwokuhwirudzura

Pashure peHondo yeNyika II, marudzi akawanda akagamuchira matare emitemo kana kuti akapa simba matare makuru aivapo nechiremera. Dare reFederal Constitution, rakaitwa muna 1951, rakava muenzaniso wenzvero huru yokutonga. Charter of Rights and Freedoms yeCanada (1982) akapa matare masimba akasimba okuhwirudzura zvakasimba, kunyange zvazvo “mashoko asina kumira pamutemo” achibvumira matare okutonga kuputsa zvisarudzo zvakati. Kunyange zvazvo United Kingdom, inotora nguva refu ichidzivisa kuhwirudzurwa kwemitemo mikuru, yakaona matare achisimbisa zvishoma nezvishoma simba rokuputsa mitemo inopesana nomutemo weEurope Union kana kuti nekodzero dzemunhu 1998.

Kudzivirira Kodzero Dzomunhu Mumwe Nomumwe

Kodzero Dzevagari Vemo Nokuenzana Kwedzinza

Kuhwirudzura jaji kwave kuri injini huru yokufambira mberi maruramiro avagari vemo muUnited States. Brown v. Board of Education (1954) yakarova nzanga yedzinza muzvikoro zvavose, kuputsa “yakapesana yakaenzana” dzidziso ye Prevention v. Ferguson[[FL:3]. Mukuru weMutongi Earl Warrenren Warren akanyora kuti zvivako zvedzidzo zvakabviswa pamutemo hazviwirirani,” uye chisarudzo cheDare rinobvumirana chakashandiswa kuhwirudzuramisiro kutsika yakaitwa kurudzoresa. [FLT:] V. V.

Nenzira yakafanana, Lovang v. Virginia (1967) akashandisa hwirudzuro yedare kurova mitemo inorwisana nomugariro wokutonga, ichizivisa kuti “rusununguko rwokuroora, kana kuti kusaroora, munhu worumwe rudzi anogara nomunhu uye haagoni kudzorwa neHurumende.” Izvi zviitiko zvinoratidzira basa redare somuchengeti wamapoka akaganhurirwa anorwisana nodzvinyiriro huru.

Kutaura Kwakasununguka uye Kutaura

Kuhwirudzura dare kunodzivirirawo musika wepfungwa. New York Times Co. v. Sullivan (1964), Dare Gurusa rakaramba kuti Gadziriro Yokutanga inodzivirira kutaura kwenhema pamusoro pavakuru vakuru vehurumende kutoti yakaitwa ne “chakaipa,” inoisa bhawa rakakwirira resutu dzemhosho. Pamisi ichangobva kupfuura iyi, mu [FLT]] Citinns United. FORC[FT:3] [2010], Dare rinobvisa gadziriro dzeBipartain Reformation Reformation inoganhurira shation yakasununguka yezvamatongerwe enyika yakasununguka kupfurikidza namasangano, kurangarira kuti chibvumirano chezvamatongerwe enyika chinodzivirira pasineiwiriranwa chezviziviso chemukurukuri. Nepo ichi chikakavanwa chamakwikwirira munhevedzano kudzivirira pamutemo.

Kuva Woga uye Kuzvishandisa Zvisina Kufanira

Kodzero yokuva woga, kunyange zvazvo isina kududzwa zvakajeka muBumbiro reMitemo, yakachengetwa kupfurikidza nehwirudzuro yedare. Griswold v.Connecticut (1965) yakakurira mutemo unorambidza kubereka kubereka, kuwana “penumbra” yekodzero dzakavanzika muBill of Rights. [FLT:] [FLD]] ROE. [[FLT] v [FLT]] [[3] [773]] [73]) Kurangarira kubvisa pamuviri, kuziva mhindu yerusununguko pasi peMutengo. [[FLT] [FLT] [5] pamutemo inodzokororwa pasi pomutemo unotototo, inopfuuresa mutemo wokutonga.[FLT]

Kudzikamisa Simba reHurumende

Kuparadzana Kwesimba

Kuhwirudzura dare icherekedzo inokosha pane mamwe mapazu. Mu Profector Comment Comment mep / Tube Co. Sawiter (1952), Dare Gurusa rakashayisa basa Purezidhendi Truman mumiitiro yedare yokubata zvigadziko zvesimbi mukati meHondo yeKorea. Dare rakaramba richidavira kuti Purezidhendi akanga asina chiremera chebumbiro remitemo chokuita chiito chakadaro pasina kubvumidzwa kwemitemo. Mutongi Robert Jackson’s Conflicence, anobvumirana naSangano redare redare reTrusasterite rekurongetestry rekuongorora simba roukuru, anoramba ari mumwe wemirangariro inopesvedzera zvikurusa pamusoro pokuparadzanisa masimba.

Misi ichangobva kupfuura iyi zvikuru, INS v. Chadha [193] yakarova chigadziko chewisctinal vento, chishandiso cheCongress chakashandiswa kuchinja zvisarudzo zvesangano ramasangano makuru pasina kuisa mutemo. Dare rakatonga kuti vaiputse Prestice Claus, inoda bidaism nemharidzo kuna Purezidhendi nokuda kwechiito chipi nechipi chemitemo. Izvi zviitiko zvinoratidza kuhwirudzura kwokutonga kunodzivisa rimwe bazi kupindira pamasimba eimwe.

Kushanda Muchishandirapamwe Nesimba reHurumende

Kuhwirudzura dare romutemo kunotapurawo dzikamo pakati pehurumende dzenyika nehurumende. Mu United States v. Lopez (1995), Dare Gurusa rakataura kuti kutakura pfuti munzvimbo yechikoro hakuna kutapura zvikuru kutengeserana kwenyika, kuganhurira simba reCherces rezvokutengeserana. Ikoku kwakaratidzira nguva yokutanga mumakore anodokusvika makumi matanhatu kuti Dare rakaputsa mutemo wehurumende nokuda kwechiremera chakakwirira zvikuru chezvokutengeserana, kuchiratidzira musengwano mutsva kutsikano yehurumende yehurumende.

Nenzira inopesana, Arizona v. United States (202) yakabvisa gadziriro huru dzomutemo wehurumende wokupinda munyika, kurangarira kuti kuchengetwa kwokutama kunobviswa nomutemo wehurumende. Kupfurikidza neizvi zvisarudzo, kuongorora kwedare kunochengeta gadziriro yemitemo youchangamire huviri.

Mirangariro Yokuenzanisa Pahwirudzuro Yorutongeso

Muenzaniso weAmerica: Kuhwirudzura Zvakasimba Muna 19

United States inoshandisa muenzaniso wakaisvonaka, wakasimba: dare ripi neripi rinogona kuzivisa mutemo usingabvumirani nehurumende, uye kududzira kweDare Rapamusorosoro kunosungisa pamapazu ose. Hapana mutemo unopfuudzira kugadziridzwa kwebumbiro remitemo, uko kwakaoma noune. Uyu muenzaniso unopa matare simba guru rokuumba muitiro, unomutsa itiro hanya pamusoro pechinetso chedare (8) tsinga pakati pehwirudzuro yedare nenheyo dzedemocracy.

Muenzaniso weBritain: Uchangamire hweParamende

MuUnited Kingdom, matare haagoni kurovanya Mabasa eParamende nemhaka yokuti Paramende ndidzo uchangamire. Zvisinei, Human Rights Act 1998 inobvumira matare kubudisa “kuziviswa kwokusawirirana,” kuratidzira kuti mutemo unoputsa European Convention on Human Rights. Paramende inochengeta chirevo chokupedzisira, kutodzora zvakashata mutemo wacho. Uku kuedza kudzokororwa kudzivirira kodzero nekodzero dzehurumende. Kuverenga Mutemo wekodzero dzevanhu

Muenzaniso weCanada: Chater Review ine Murwi Wechengeteko

Canada’s Constitution Act, 1982, kubatanidza Charter of Rights and Freedoms, inopa matare masimba okuhwirudzura akasimba. Zvisinei, Chikamu 33(8) “masangano emitemo akamira"(*) ehurumende yokukurira kodzero dzakati dzeTsamba kwenhambo shanu dzegore. Simba iri rakashandiswa nenzira inoganhurirwa, zvikurukuru neQuebec mumutemo womutauro. Muenzaniso weCanada unoedza kudzikamisa chiremera chedare nechisarudzo chemitemo.

Matare eEurope Anotevedzerwa Kumutemo

Nyika dzakawanda dzeEurope dzine matare chaiwo ebumbiro remitemo ayo anodzokorora (mitemo inoyera isati yaita basa) uye hwirudzuro chaiyo (kunzwa gunun’una kunobva kuvanhu vamwe navamwe). Dare reGermany reFederal Constitution rakaita kuti mitemo ishaye simba pachivande, kutaura kwakasununguka, uye dziviriro yemashoko, zvichiumba nzvimbo yepamutemo yenyika. Dare reRumbiso reEurope neEuropean Court of Human Rights rinopa hwirudzuro yekodzero dzamarudzi ose, richiumba gadziriro yakawanda yokudzivirira kodzero dzavanhu.

Mhaka Dzapanyika Dzakarondedzera Kuhwirudzurwa Kworutongeso

Kuwedzera Kodzero Dzemunhu Mumwe Nomumwe

  • Mapp v. Ohio (1961): Yakashandisa mutemo wokuparadza kumatare ehurumende, kuisa ufakazi hunowanwa kupfurikidza nokunzvera kusina mufungo nepfari.
  • Miranda v. Arizona (1966): Mapurisa anodikanwa kuzivisa vanonyumwira kodzero dzavo dzokunyarara uye zano pamberi pebvunzurudzo yekodzero youdzori.
  • Obergefell v. Hodges (2015): Roorano yakaitwa yapamutemo yakafanana nevatano munyika yose, ichirangarira kuti Ivhu reMitemo rechi 14 rinovimbisa maruramiro okuroora pasinei zvapo nevatano kana kuti chimiro chevatano.
  • Lawrence v. Texas (2003): Kuderedza mitemo yehurumende yesodoma, kuziva fariro yorusununguko muukama hwapedyo hwomunhu oga.

Kutsvaka Kunyanyoshandiswa neHurumende

  • United States v. Nixon (1974): Kutaura kwaPrezidhendi Nixon kweropafadzo yapamusoro yakakwana, kuchimumanikidzira kutendeutsa matepi eWatergate.
  • Clinton v. City of New York (1998): Yakashayisa basa Line Ement Veto Act, iyo yakapa Purezidhendi simba rokudzima zvinhu chaizvo zvinopedzerwa pasina mvumo yesangano.
  • Nzvimbo yeHomeland Security v. Regents dzeUniversity of California [2020]: Yakavhara kuedza kwemutarisiri weTrump kudzokororwa kweDACA, ichiwana kurangarira kwokusafunga uye kwokuchinja.

Kutsoropodza Nezvinetso

Chinetso Chezvokurwisana

Kutsoropodza kunopfuurira zvikurusa kwehwirudzuro kusiri kwokusawirirana nako kuri pachena nehurumende inosarudzwa. Apo vatongi vasina kusarudzwa vanoputsa mitemo inopfuudzwa nevanogadza mitemo vakasarudzwa nevoruzhinji, vanotsiva zvisarudzo zvavo zvemitemo nokuda kweizvozvi zvavanhu. Alexander Bickel nenzira yakakurumbira vakadana ikoku kuti “chinetso chehurumende.” Vatsigiri vanopindura kuti hwirudzuro yedare inodzivirira vashomanene namaruramiro makuru izvo zviremera zvikuru zvingafuratira, uye kuti Bumbiro remitemo rimene igwaro rehurumende rinoganhurira zvamatongerwe enyika zvavanhuwo zvavo.

Kutonga Kunopesana.

Vatsoropodzi vanowanzopomera matare “chiito chemitemo yemitemo” apo vanorova mitemo, vachirumbidza“ chirambidzo chemitemo” apo vanonongedzera kudzimba dzomutemo. Zvisinei, aya mabhii anoiswa mundangariro. Somuenzaniso, vachengeti vetsika vakachengeta Chinoumba United[ [[ku] (kuisa mitemo yemari yemari) kungabvisa revo yapakuvamba Obergefell[] (kubatanidza roorano imwe cheteyo yechinyakare) somutsigiri, uye . Chaizvoizvo, vatongi vose vanopinda mukududzira; mubvunzo kana vachinamatira kurevo yapachena yemanyoro omutemo kana kuti nzira inorarama.

Kugadzwa Kwokugadzwa

Munyika dzakawanda, muitiro wokusarudza vatongi wazova tsigiro huru dzezvamatongerwe enyika. Dare Rapamusorosoro reUnited States zvino hondo dzinoparadza, uye vadzorwi kazhinji kazhinji vanonyandurwa nokuda kwemirangariro yavo yemirangariro panhau dzinopisa zvikuru. Ikoku kunogona kusekesa chivimbo chavose mukusasarura kwejaji. Dzimwe nyanzvi dzinokarakadza chinjo dzakadai seganhuriro dzeshoko nokuda kweruramisiro kana kuti zera rokurega basa rechiito kuti dzideredze kugadza.

Kuparadzana Kwematare Netyisidziro Dzesangano

Nhamburiko dzomutemo dzokuwedzera kana kuti kushandurazve dare redare redare revhu nerokuisa mukurumbira waro dzinonzi “dare parangeri"."_______Ipa tyisidziro yakananga kukuzvitonga. Muna 1937, Purezidhendi Franklin Roosevelt akakarakadza kuwedzera kumatare matsva matanhatu kuDare Guru pashure pokunge raparadza mapurogiramu ake. Gadziriro yacho yakakundikana, asi chinoitika chacho chinoratidzira kuti mapazu ezvamatongerwe enyika angaedza sei kupedza judicariary isina ushamwari. Zvikarakadzo zvakafanana zvakadzokororwazve mumakore achangobva kupfuura, kumutsa mibvunzo pamusoro pekutsigiro refu yedare.

Nguva Yemberi Yokuhwirudzura

Dzidziso Dzinochinja

Sezvo nzanga inochinja, dzidziso dzokutonga dzinochinja. Dare repamusorosoro reU.S. kuchinjira kuumwari hwapakuvamba nokunyora magwaro, kuchitungamirirwa noMutongi Antonin Scalia uye kuchipfuuridzirwa navazhinjisa vasingachinji, kungaganhurira ukuru hwedziviriro yekodzero. Panguva imwe cheteyo, matare akaderera nematare makurusa ehurumende zviri kuturikira nenzira inowedzera kuturikira mitemo yenyika kugovera dziviriro huru zvikuru kupfuura Bumbiro remitemo rehurumende.

Ruzivo Rwokugadzira Zvinhu uye Kuva Woga

Ruzivo rwemichina runopa denho dzemanobhurokuru nokuda kwokuhwirudzura. Madare anofanira kusarudza kuti Amendeji yeChina inoshanda sei kumashoko enzvimbo yeseropheleji , kana maarutemi eanoshandiswa mukutonga kwoutsotsi achiputsa muitiro wedare, uye kuti nheyo dzemitemo yokutaura dzakasununguka dzinotambanukira sei kumabumbiro enhau. Mu Carcenter v. United States[FLM] [FLD:1] [2017]), Dare rapamusoro raidavira kuti hurumende inowanzoda pamutemo rokuwana mapepa enzvimbo yenhau dzenhau dzekare, ichiziva kuti ruzivo rutsva rwokugadzirwa kwezvinhu runogona kubvisa kariro dzenguva yemberi.

Miitiro Yenyika Yose

Kuhwirudzurwa kwedare kunoenderera mberi kupararira munyika yose, asi kunopesanawo. Munyika dzakadai seHungary, Poland, neTurkey, hurumende dzakanetesa matare ebumbiro remitemo kupfurikidza nokutonga, dare rinopa mhosva, uye kubviswa kwevatongi vanozvimirira. Kuderera kwokuzvimirira muhurumende itsva dzinotonga kunosimbisa kusabatsira kwemasangano emitemo.

mhedziso

Kuhwirudzura dare kunoramba kuri kunokosha asi kwakakwikwidza. Kupfurikidza nokupa matare simba rokuparadza mitemo isina kurongwa nezviito zvokutungamirira, kunodzivirira maruramiro makuru uye kunochengeta dzikamo yebumbiro remitemo. Nhau dzekudzorwa kwe Marbury ku [FLT:]] kuti yawa [[FLT]] yaita kuti ishanduke] pamutemo, nepo kutsoropodza kunopfuurira kwechiito, kuoma kwechiito, kudzokorora dare kuti tiri pembedzore. Kubudirira kwedare hakubvi patsika inotsamira pakuzvidzora, judia, uye kutadza kuiswa kumutemo mutsva. Somupi wehurumende kupfuurira kurangarira kutongwa nokuzviito.