Kutanga: Dombo Rerusununguko Rwoga Rwega Rwega

Murangariro wemuitiro wakafanira unomira seimwe yedziviriro dzinotsungirira zvikurusa nedzinokosha mukuita kwehurumende kwoudzvinyiriri munzanga ipi neipi yehurumende. Inheyo yapamutemo inoda nyika kuremekedza maruramiro ose apamutemo akapiwa munhu, ichivimbisa kuti hakuna munhu anonyimwa upenyu, rusununguko, kana kuti zvinhu zvisina nhevedzano yapamutemo. Vadzidzi, vadzidzi, nyanzvi dzemitemo, uye varongi vakaronze vagari vemo, kunzwisisa kuti mutoo wakafanira unoshanda sei nokuda kwokunzwisisa dzikamo yesimba pakati porudzi rwomunhu nomunhu. Pasina mutoo wakafanira, chiremera chehurumende chinova chisingadzoreki, uye kodzero dzavanhu vamwe navamwe pasina simba rezvematongerwe enyika kana kuti pesvedzero yenzanga. Nemhaka yetsika haisingoriwo zvayo dzidziso yomutemo yetsika; itsika uye kuzvidavirira, uye kuzvidavirira kwomutemo.

Kudzivirirwa pamabasa ehurumende anosarudzwa kwakaumbwa mutsika yeUnited States kupfurikidza neMitemo yeChishanu neMitemo ye 14 yeMitemo, iyo inorambidza zvakajeka hurumende kunyima munhu upi noupi woupenyu, rusununguko, kana kuti chinhu pasina muitiro wakafanira womutemo. Bva revo nokushandiswa kwamashoko aya zvakakurukurwa, zvakanatswa, uye zvakakudziridzwa mumazana amakore okududzirwa kwapamutemo. Nyaya ino inopa nzvero huru yemuitiro wazvo wenhau, kutevera midziro yayo yenhau, kutsanangura zvimiro zvayo zvikuru zviviri, zvimiro zvayo zvokunzeswa nechinhu zvisina mutemo. Nhevedzo dzemitemo dzakapfuurira sei idzodzi muzvinoitika zvenyika inoumba nyika. Inotaurawo zvinetso zvazvino uno unotambudza, kubatanidza chengeteko yorudzi, uye basa rinodzokororwa ramasangano ehurumende, iro rinoramba richiratidzira mutoo mukuru mukuru wenhau mumitezo.

Mavambo Enhau Ezvinoitika

Magna Carta Negamuchidzanwa Romutemo Wavose weEngland

Mavambo egadziriro yakafanira anogona kurondwa shure kugore ra1215, apo vadzori veEngland vakamanikidzira Mambo John kusaina Magna Carta kuRunnymede. Nepo Magna Carta kazhinji kazhinji anoitwa anodanana sekodzero dzedemokrase, chakanga chiri zvikurukuru chibvumirano chorugare pakati pamambo nemachinda ake anopandukira. Kunyange zvakadaro, chaiva negadziriro yaizonzwika mumazana amakore ebudiriro yepamutemo: Chitsauko 39 chakazivisa kuti “Hapana munhu akasununguka achabatwa kana kuiswa mutorongo, kana kuti kubviswa kodzero dzake kana kuti zvinhu zvake, kana kuti kubviswa musimba rake munzira ipi neipi, kana kuti kunyimwairwa mukurwisana naye, kana kuti tichaita nesimba mukurwisana naye, kana kuti kutumira vamwe kuti kuita saizvozvo, kunze kwokutonga kwapamutemo kwevaenzani vake kana kuti nomutemo wenyika. Chikamu ichi chakava chitsauko chekuti chakava nzira yekodzero yekodzero yemitemo yekwazvino uno.

Magna Carta yakasimbiswazve ndokusimbiswazve kanoverengeka mumazana amakore egumi namatatu negumi namashanu, uye nheyo dzayo dzakapinzwa zvishoma nezvishoma mugamuchidzanwa romutemo weEngland. Chitsama chinoti "chokutangira muitiro womutemo" chakatanga kuoneka mumutemo waMambo Edward III, icho chakagovera kuti "hapano munhu wenzvimbo kana mugariro waangava, achadzingwa munyika yake kana kuti migariro, kana kuti kutorwa, kana kuiswa mutorongo, kana kuti kubviswa nhaka, kana kuti kuurawa, pasina kupiwa mhinduro nomutoo wakafanira womutemo." Chimiro ichi chakajekesa kuti "mutemo wenyika" unoda kutendwa pamberi pomuitiro wapamutemo usati wagona kubviswa pakodzero dzavo. Munguva inotemwaradzikiswa, matare echiNgezi akakura zvinodikanwa zvakatemwa, kuzivisa zvakarurama, kurudyi, kutongwa, kutongwa nedare rokutonga zvakarurama.

Kutanga Kwenyika Nekuchinja

Vagari vemo veEngland vakatakura gamuchidzanwa ravose romutemo kuenda kuNorth America, uye pfungwa yemuitiro wakafanira yakava yakasimbiswa zvikuru mukuziva kwapamutemo kwedzonga dzeAmerica. Tsamba dzavagari vemo nebumbiro rehurumende rapakuvamba kazhinji kazhinji zvaibatanidza gadziriro dzinovimbisa kuti hakuna munhu angagona kunyimwa upenyu, rusununguko, kana kuti nzvimbo kunze kwomutemo wenyika. Chinoitika chokutonga kweBritain mumakumi amakore anotungamirira kuRevolution yeAmerica, zvisinei, chakaratidzira kuti dziviriro idzi dziviriro dzapabhurokwa dzemitero pasina kumirira nyika, kushandiswa kwezvibvumidzo zvehurumende inobvumira vakuru vakuru kunzvera musha upi noupi pasina chikonzero, uye kudzorwa kwemitongo yedare muzvinoitika zvakamirira izvo vatongi vehurumende vai.

Chiziviso cheKuzvimirira chakaronga zvakajeka izvi zvichemo zvinorwisana naMambo George III, kubatanidza "kutipa zviitiko zvakawanda zvebetsero dzeDare rakaitwa naJury" uye "kutiendesa kunze kweGungwa kuti tiedzwe nokuda kwokunyepedzera kudarika. Uku kusazvibata kwakanga kusiriwo bedzi kusitongori kuputsa kwebumbiro remitemo; zvakanga zviri zvinoitika chaizvoizvo zvesimba rinotonga rakaumba kutsunga kwevagadziri vehurumende kudzorwa nomutemo. Apo Bumbiro reMitemo rakanyorerwa muna 1787, zvisinei, rakava donzo guru remhoshoro mukati mekurukurirano dzemitemo yekodzero, kuchitungamirira kuchipikirwa chokuti chirevo chekodzero dzekodzero dzavanhu chaizowedzerwa segadziriro yokutanga yebhizimisi yebhizimisi pasi pehurumende itsva.

Mitemo Yechishanu Neyechigumi Nechina

Gadziriro yeshanu, yakatenderwa sorutivi rweBill of Rights muna 1791, inopa zvakajeka kuti "Hapana munhu achanyimwa... upenyu, rusununguko, kana kuti zvinhu, pasina muitiro wakafanira womutemo. Iyi gadziriro yakashanda bedzi kuhurumende yehurumende, inoratidzira chitendero chokuti tyisidziro huru kurusununguko rwomunhu oga yakabva kuhurumende yenyika panzvimbo pehurumende. Kuzhinjisa kwezana ramakore rechigumi namapfumbamwe, Gwironga reFindrence rakaramba riri pasi pomutemo, murutivi nemhaka yokuti mibato yehurumende yehurumende yehurumende yaidzorwa kukuva yakabva kuhurumende yenyika.

Kudzorwa kweIndaneti yeMitemo yechigumi namana muna 1868, pashure peHondo yavagari vemo, kwakachinja zvikuru magariro omutemo wegadziriro yakafanira. Chikamu 1 chekugadziridzwa chinogovera kuti "Hapana Hurumende ichaita kana kuti kumanikidza mutemo upi noupi uchavhara maropafadzo kana kuti kudzivirira vagari vemo veUnited States; uyewo Hurumende ipi neipi haingazonyimi munhu upi noupi upenyu, rusununguko, kana kuti zvinhu, pasina muitiro wakafanira womutemo; kana kuramba kumunhu upi noupi ari musimba rayo kudzivirira kwakaenzana kwemitemo." Mutauro uyu waindedzera mubatanidzwa wehurumende, uchiumba mupimo worudzi worusarura kuvimbika uko kungava nheyo yezvinetso zvisingaverengeki zvemitemo zvehurumende.

Kududzirwa kweChibvumirano cheMitemo che14 cheChibvumirano cheChine Chinetso cheChine Chikuru chainzi Taundi muAmerica yose. Dzimwe nyanzvi nevatongi vakapikisa kuti zvikurukuru zvakanga zvakaitirwa kudzivirira varanda vakanga vachangobva kusunungurwa pamitemo yehurumende inotonga, nepo vamwe vakazviona semitemo yakafara yekodzero dzevanhu inobatanidza kudzivirirwa kweBill of Rights pahurumende. Dare Rapamusoro pakupedzisira rakagamuchira murangariro wapashure kupfurikidza nedzidziso yokubatanidza, iyo yakabatira Hurumende dzakawanda dzeGwara rekodzero kupfurikidza neSangano reHurumende reGumbidzo reGumo reMite Clausscius.

Mbiru Mbiri Dzinotarisirwa

Kuratidza Zvakakodzera: Ururami Mukuita Zvisarudzo Zvehurumende

Muitiro wakafanira rutivi rwomuitiro wakafanira uyo une chokuita nemiitiro iyo hurumende inofanira kutevera isati yanyima munhu woupenyu, rusununguko, kana kuti chinhu. Iko kuri zvikurukuru pamusoro peruramisiro mumuitiro wokuita chisarudzo chehurumende, kuva nechokwadi chokuti vanhu vanogamuchira ziviso yakakwana nebanza rokunzwa hurumende isati yaita chiito chinokuvadza fariro dzavo. Mubvunzo mukuru mumuitiro upi noupi wakafanira ndewokuti: Muitiroi uri madikanwa? Mhinduro inotsamira parudzi rwemubereko uri padanda, ngozi yokushaiwa kwakarurama mumiitiro iripo, uye fariro yehurumende mukuita budiriro inoshanda zvakanaka.

Ziva uye Kunzwa Zvinodiwa

Pachikamu chiduku, muitiro wekuzivisa unoda kuti hurumende igovere vanhu chiziviso chine revo chezviito zvinokarakadzwa uye banza rokupa nhau yavo pamberi poMuiti wechisarudzo asingasaruri. Nzvero inofanira kurangarirwa nenzira ine mufungo kuzivisa munhu anotapurwa nezvechiito chakamirira uye zvikonzero pachiri kutsamira, kuvabvumira banza rakanaka rokupindura. Nzeve dzinofanira kuitiswa panguva ine revo uye nomutoo une revo, kupa munhu wacho banza rokupa ufakazi hunopiwa, zvapupu zvakapangurirwa zvapamberiso, uye kuita zvibvumikiso zvapamutemo.

Zvinodikanwa izvi hazvisati zviri zvakakwana uye hazvishandi nenzira imwe cheteyo kuchiito chiri chose chehurumende. Dare Gurusa rakaziva kuti muitiro wakafanira unochinjika uye kuraira dziviriro dzetsika dzakadaro sezvinodikanwa nemamiriro ezvinhu akati. Mumamwe mashoko, kunzwa kwakazara kworudzi rwokuedza kungadikanwa, nepo mune mamwe, kuhwirudzurwa kwokudzora kusina kurongwa kungava kwakakwana. Chinokosha ndechokuti miitiro yacho inofanira kuva inogoverwa nomutoo wakarurama zvikuru mamiriro ezvinhu anobatanidzwa nemigariro yenhau yacho.

Kudzikamisa Mathaws neEldridge

Gadziriro yazvino uno yokunzvera gadziriro yokuyera procedturation yakatangwa muchinoitika chechiratidzo cha 1976 MAthews v. Eldiridge , umo Dare Guru rakapfuudza nhimbe nhatu dzemiedzo inodzikamiswa. Dare rakataura kuti kusarudza kuti muitiro unofanira kudiwa kurangarirwa kwezvinhu zvitatu: kutanga, fariro yomunhu oga ichatapurwa nechiito chehurumende; chechipiri, ngozi yokurasikirwa nefariro iyoyo isina kururama kupfurikidza nemiitiro inoshandiswa zvino, uye ukoshipi nomusitiri wezvokuwedzera; uye yechitatu, fariro yehurumende, kubatanidza fariro yemiitiro dzemari nemitoro zvokutarisira izvo miitiro yokuwedzera inobatanidza.

Kuedza kwakashandiswa mumhatsa huru yemashoko akapoteredza, kubva mukubetserwa kwegarikano kudzoresa kukusakwanisa kuremadza kwezviito zvevasungwa. Kunoratidzira mutoo wezvokuronga wakafanira uyo unoona kudikanwa kwokudzikamisa kodzero dzomunhu oga nedzezvomene dzehurumende. Nepo kunzvera kwakatsoropodzwa nedzimwe nyanzvi nokuda kwokupa ukombi hukurusa kurumbidzo yehurumende, kunoramba kuri gadziriro huru yokunzvera kwapamutemo mumuitiro wakafanira mumatare ehurumende.

Muitiro Wakafanira: Kudzivirira Kodzero Dzinokosha

Muitiro wakafanira unoita nharo zvikuru asi unokosha zvakaenzana wedzidziso yakafanira. Kusafanana nomuitiro wezvakafanira, uyo unonangidzira ngwariro pakururama kwemiitiro inoshandiswa nehurumende, mutoo wakafanira unonzvera kubatana [ kwomutemo umene, uchibvunza kana hurumende ine ruramiso yakakwana yokuisa mumativi akati orusununguko. Inodzivirira maruramiro akati okukosha padzongonyedzo dzehurumende, kunyange apo hurumende inotevera miitiro yakarurama yakakwana.

Kodzero Dzapakuvamba Nenzvero Yakasimba

Dare rapamusoro rakarangarira kuti maruramiro akati akadzika midzi zvikuru munhau yenyika namagamuchidzanwa, kana kuti anokosha zvikuru kumurangariro worusununguko rwakarairwa, zvokuti anofanirwa nedziviriro chaiyo pasi peChiteshi chamaidi Claus. Aya maruramiro makuru anobatanidza, pakati pedzimwe, maruramiro okuroora, kodzero yokuita, kodzero yokutungamirira kurerwa kwavana vomunhu, maruramiro kuperero yomuviri, uye maruramiro okuita zvisarudzo zvomunhu oga zvakati zvakavanzika. Apo mutemo unoputsa maruramiro makuru, matare anoshandisa nzvero yorumano, inoda kuti hurumende iratidzire kuti mutemo ushande fariro inogombedzerwa uye unosanoitwa kuti usvike fariro iyoyo.

Dzidziso yomuitiro wakafanira wokusasarura yave iri nhau yegakava guru munhau yose yeAmerica, navatsoropodzi vachirangarira kuti inopa vatongi uchenjeri hukuru zvikuru kuti vape mitemo yakagadzwa nenzira yehurumende yakavakirwa pamipimo yavo vamene yomunhu oga. Vatsigiri vanogamuchira mutoo iwoyo wakafanira wokudzivirira rusununguko rwomunhu oga muudzvinyiriri hwavadzvinyiriri uye kuti matare ane basa rapamutemo mukuziva nokusimbisa mipimo mikuru yakaiswa muBumbiro remitemo.

Dzidziso Yokuchinja

Imwe yenhevedzo hurusa yemiitiro inowirirana yave iri kupfurikidza nedzidziso yokubatanidza, iyo inorangarira kuti Dare Gurusa reBasa Claus reMitemo ye 144th Amendment "incorporate" gadziriro dzakati dzeBill of Rights uye dzinoita kuti dzishande kuhurumende. Munhevedzano yenhau dzakasarudzwa zvikurukuru pakati pama 1920 na 1960, Dare Rapamusoro rakashandisa Nhengo dzeClaussmes kushandisa zvakawanda zvezvipikirwa zvakananga zveChiviko cheGavhuro Chokutanga chekutaura nechitendero, kubatanidza kurambidza kweFrenderlinement yeChina pakunzvera kusina mufungo nepfaka, uye kudzo yeChitanhatu yeGandementodment kurudyi kurudyi rweChitanhatu kukupa zano.

Dare rakaramba chibvumikiso chokuti Maropafadzo kana kuti maImmunite Claus eGrandment ye14th Amendment yakanga iri motokari yokubatanidza, panzvimbo pezvo ichitsamira paGute Econdation Claus semanyuko edziviriro. Dare rakarambawo chimiro chokuti Bill of Rights inofanira kushandiswa kunyika dzose, inozivikanwa sechinowirirana, ichitsigira kusvika kwakasarudzwa kwekodzero kwekodzero dzinoshandiswa parudzi rumwe norumwe rwakavakirwa paunhu hwaro hunokosha. Pakasvika mugumo wezana ramakore rechimakumi maviri, inodokuva yose yegadziriro dzeChibvumirano chekodzero dzekodzero dzavanhu vose yakanga yabatanidzwa kupfurikidza neCreaus Claus, ichiumba nzvimbo yekodzero dzorudzi rwomunhu urwo hurumende isingagoni kuputsa.

Kuratidzira Mhaka Dzapamusorosoro Dzedare

Zviitiko Zvinoitika Pazvakatarwa

Kelly (1970)

Mu Goldberg v. Kelly, Dare Rapamusoro rakataura kuti Gungano reChimiro chapasi rinoda kutonga kwakajeka pamberi pomugamuchiri anogona kubviswa mubetsero dzegarikano. Mhaka yacho yakamuka apo New York City yakatsvaka kubvisa betsero dzegarikano dzavagamuchiri vanoverengeka pasina kuvapa banza rokupa ufakazi kana kuti zvapupu pamberi pomuiti wechisarudzo asingasaruri. Dare rakarangarira kuti betsero dzegarikano ikodzero yaavo vanokwaniriswa, uye kuti kubviswa kwebetsero dzakadaro kunotorera vanhu fariro yepfuma inodzivirirwa nefariro yepfuma inochengetwa neGenetic Claus Claus.

Mutongi Brennan, achinyorera voruzhinji, akasimbisa kuti betsero dzegarikano hadzisi rudzi rwomutsa asi nhau yekodzero yevagamuchiri vakakwaniriswa. Dare rakataura kuti muitiro wakafanira unoda kuti teerero ibatanidzwe inobatanidza mukana wokupa ufakazi, kutarisana nechapupu chemichina, uye kumiririrwa nezano. Mhaka yacho yakaratidzira kukura kukuru kwegadziriro dzapamutemo mumashoko akapoteredza ebetsero yehurumende ndokutanga nheyo yokuti hurumende haigoni kudzongonyedza nenzira yokupfupikisa maruramiro emitemo, uye kugovera dziviriro dzine revo.

Matews v. Eldridge (1976)

Sezvakurukurwa pamusoro apa, Mathews v. Elditridge yakatanga nzvero yemativi matatu yokudzikamisa iyo matare anoshandisa kusarudza kuti miitiroi inodikanwa neGuertive Procession Claus. Mhaka yacho yakabatanidza denho kumiitiro inoshandiswa neSocial Security Administration kubetsero dzourema. Kusafanana nebetsero dzegarikano mu [[FLT:] Goldberg v. Kelly, betsero dzourema dzakabviswa paufakazi hwezvokurapadza hungagona kurangarirwa kupfurikidza nezvinotendwa panzvimbo pezvipupuriro zvipenyu.

Dare rakataura kuti miitiro yakashandiswa neSocial Security Administration (iyo yakabatanidza ziviso yokubviswa kunokarakadzwa, banza rokupa ufakazi hwezvokurapa hwakanyorwa, uye maruramiro okurangarirazve pamberi pomutongi wehurumende (*kugutsa zvinodikanwa zvegadziriro yakafanira. Dare rakatsaura ] Goldberg v. Kelly] panzvimbo apo kutsunga kweremara kwakavakirwa paufakazi hwezvokurapa panzvimbo penzvero dzenhau dzezvokurapa panzvimbo pokuyera, kuchideredza ngozi yokushaiwa mhaka kwakaipa. [[FLTLT:2]]] Mathes[FLT]] Kubvira pakuedza kwomupimo nokuda kwomuitiro wekunzvera kwehurumende.

Miranda muArizona (1966)

Mu Miranda v. Arizona, Dare Rapamusorosa rakatanga chinodikanwa chokuti mapurisa anofanira kuzivisa vanhu dzimwe maruramiro avo ebumbiro remitemo asati aita bvunzurudzo dzekodzero. Mhaka yacho yaibatanidza Ernesto Miranda, uyo akawanwa ane mhaka yokubiwa nokubatwa nokubatwa chibharo kwakavakirwa pakureurura kwakawanikwa pashure pokunge mapurisa amubvunzurudza pasina kumuzivisa kodzero yake yokuramba akanyarara kana kuti kodzero yake yokupa zano. Dare rairangarira kuti ropafadzo yeChimbiso cheshanu chinorwisana nokuzvitonga chinoda kurovererwa nomutemo kuti ape vanhu vamwe navamwe muusungwa asati abvunzurudzwa.

Chisarudzo cheDare chakanga chakavakirwa pakuziva kuti kubvunzurudza mwana kunoitwa nenzira yomuzvarirwo uye kuti vanonyumwira havangazivi kodzero dzavo dzebumbiro remitemo. Miranda inonyevera kuti maruramiro okuramba akanyarara, kodzero yokupa zano, uye nyevero yokuti chinhu chipi nechipi chinonyumwirwa chingagona kushandiswa mudare () zvazova chimwe chedziviriro dzinozivikanwa zvikurusa dzetsika mumutemo weAmerica. Mhaka yacho yakasimbisa nheyo yokuti muitiro wakafanira unoda vakuru vakuru vakuru vehurumende kutora matanho okudzivirira kodzero dzemitemo, zvikurukuru mumashoko apo vanhu vangasaziva kodzero dzavo.

Zviitiko Zvikuru Zvinodiwa

Mavara (1903) naDobbs v. Jackson Vakadzi Vane utano (2022)

.Roe v. Wade inomira seimwe yenhevedzo inokosha zvikurusa neinomutsa nharo dzebasa rakafanira rokusapinda munhau yeAmerica. Dare rakaramba kuti Dare raiti Gungano reChimiro chaMakuru neKinneth Amendment rinodzivirira kodzero yomukadzi yokusarudza kuva nepamuviri, kuwana kuti kodzero iyi inowira mukati medziviriro yemitemo yezvakavanzika zvomunhu oga neyomuviri. Mutongi Blackmun akaziva kuti kodzero yokuva wogaro, kunyange zvazvo isina kududzwa zvakajeka muBumbiro reMitemo remitemo, inodzivirirwa neChession Claus sefation inokosha.

Anenge makore makumi mashanu gare gare, Dare Gurusa rakatonga Roe v. Wade mu [[FLT:] Dobts v. Jackson Vakadzi] Organization yeHealth[ [2022], richiita kuti Bumbiro reMitemo risapa kodzero yokubvisa pamuviri. Mutongi Alito weruzhinji akataura kuti kodzero yokubvisa pamuviri haina kudzika midzi zvikuru munhau yenyika uye magamuchidzanwa uye kuti chiremera chokudzora kubvisa mimba chinofanira kudzorerwa kuvanhu uye kuvamiriri vavo vakasarudzwa. Mhaka yacho inomirira kuchinja kukuru mumuitiro wechinyaka unotarwa uye yakatonga pamusoro pematare enhau inofanira kushandisa kodzero dzinokosha pasi pekuumbwa.

Obergefell v. Hodges (2015)

Mu .Hodgell v. Hodges, Dare rapamusoro rakataura kuti Chimiro cheChiitiko neMutezo waClaus neSangano rePuremente Calaus zvinoda kuziva michato imwe cheteyo yevatano ne 144th Amendment. Murangariro wavazhinji waKennedy wakasimbisa kuti maruramiro okuroora ndiwo maruramiro makuru anodzivirirwa neGumbidzo yeChiitiro chaClaus, uye kuti ichi maruramiro chinotambanurira kuva vanyakuroorana vomutevendi vamwe chetevo pamashoko akafanana navakwanyina voukuru. Dare rakarangarira kuti maruramiro okuroora akasimba zvikuru munhau yenyika namagamuchidzanwa, uye kuti vakaroorana vorudzi rumwe chete voga voga voga voga vomuchato vaizovaramba chiremera uye kuti Dare remitemo rinodzivirira.

Chisarudzo chacho chakanga chiri rukundo runokosha nokuda kwamaruramiro eLGBTQ uye chakamirira futunuko inokosha yegadziriro yomuitiro wokudzivirira. Dare rakashandisa gadziriro huru yamaruramiro akagadzwa munhau dzapakuvamba, richifunga kuti kodzero yokuroora ifariro huru iyo isingagoni kunyimwa kuvaroorani vane mitezo mimwe cheteyo yevatano pasina fariro yehurumende inogombedzera.

Glucksberg (1997)

Mu Shashington v. Glucksberg, Dare rapamusoro rakataura gadziriro yazvino uno yokuzivisa maruramiro makuru pasi peGungano raClaus. Mhaka yakabatanidza denho kuWashington yechirango chehurumende pakuzviuraya kwaibatanidzwa, nemushonga weSabataidzo inodzivirira munhu anorwara zvikuru kuti aponese upenyu hwake nebetsero yezvokurapa. Dare rakaramba chibvumikiso ichi, richiva nepfungwa yokuti kodzero yokubetsera kuzviuraya haisi fariro inokosha inodzivirirwa neSangano rekutsiva.

Murangariro mukuru weRuzivo rwaMakuru Rehnquist wakaita nzvero ine mativi maviri yokuzivisa maruramiro makuru: kutanga, matare anofanira kurondedzera akataurwa pamwero wakafanira wetsika, kunzvera nhau yorudzi, magamuchidzanwa emitemo, nemiitiro; wechipiri, matare anofanira kusarudza kana kodzero yakavakirwa zvikuru munhau yorudzi namagamuchidzanwa uye mumurangariro werusununguko rwakarairwa. Glucksberg[ chirongwa chinosimbisa kudzorwa nokuzviisa pasi pemiitiro yedemocracy, ichida kunzvera kwokungwarira kwapamutemo pamberi pokuziva kodzero itsva huru pasi peBarati Claus.

Kufambira Mberi Kwakafanira Mundima Dzoutarisiri Nedzekudzora

Gadziriro dzemuitiro dzinoganhurirwa kumitongo youtsotsi nemhinduro yavagari vemo; dzinoshandawo munzvimbo huru neinowedzera yomutemo wokudzora. Masangano ehurumende pahurumende, hurumende, uye mwero yomunzvimbomo anoita zvisarudzo zvisingaverengeki izvo zvinotapura upenyu hwomunhu, rusununguko, uye fariro dzezvinhu, kubatanidza zvisarudzo pamusoro pokuisa, betsero, mvumo, uye kudzorwa. Administrative Procedure Act (A) ya 1946 yakavamba gadziriro huru yokuita chisarudzo chesangano, ichida kuzivisa nokutsinhira miitiro yokugadza mitemo uye kugovera kuhwirudzura kwezviito zvesangano.

Mumashoko okutonga, muitiro wezvokuronga unoda kuti masangano ape vanhu chiziviso chakakwana chezviito zvinokarakadzwa, mukana wokupa ufakazi nenharo, uye tsananguro yokurangarira nokuda kwezvisarudzo zvokupedzisira. Miitiro yakananga inodikanwa inotsamira parudzi rwefariro padanda uye kudzikamiswa kwezvinhu pasi pezvapupu zvinopesana zvinovapo zvinopesana nemhesano. Musiano wezvisarudzo zvenzanga zvingaitwa kupfurikidza nezvinodikanwa zvikuru zvemitemo.

Kukura kwamasangano okutonga kwakaparira denho itsva nokuda kwegadziriro yemitemo yakafanira, sezvo masangano anoshandisa masimba anobatanidza mibato yemitemo, yehurumende, uye yokutonga. Dare rapamusorosoro rakaziva kuti masangano angaisa kodzero dzevanhu mumiitiro yokutonga, kana zviitiko izvozvo zvichigutsa zvinodikanwa zvikuru zvegadziriro yakafanira uye kuti pane kuhwirudzurwa kwezvisarudzo zvine revo zvedare. Kurongwa kwomutemo wokudzora uye muitiro wakafanira kunoramba kuri nzvimbo ine simba yokubudirira kwepamutemo, zvikurukuru samasangano anotsamira zvikuru pamitemo uye uchenjeri hwokugadzira kuti aite zvisarudzo zvinotapura kodzero dzevanhu vamwe navamwe.

Kururamisira Kwoutsotsi Kunoenderana Nezvakwakaita

Gadziriro yeruramisiro yamatsotsi inopa kushandiswa kukurusa uye kwakakwirira kwenheyo dzakafanira. Apo hurumende inotsvaka kunyima munhu rusununguko(kana kuti, mumhaka dzorufu, upenyu(kupfurikidza nokupomerwa mhaka dzoutsotsi, dziviriro dzamagariro dzeCentre Procestion Claus iri pakakwirira. Bumbiro remitemo rinoda kuti vakwiri vemhosva vagamuchire dziviriro dzakawanda dzemitongo yetsika, kubatanidza maruramiro kumuedzo wavose wokukurumidza uye wavose, maruramiro kudare risingasaruri, maruramiro okuziviswa nezvemhosva dzinopomerwa, maruramiro okutarisana nazvo, maruramiro okuita zvapupu zvinorwisana nazvo, maruramiro okuzviwanira pamutemo kuwana dziviriro dzinodikanwa munyashamirairo yavo, uye maruramiro kubetsero yezano.

Kupfuura izvi zvibvumikiso zvakananga, muitiro unodikanwa mumugariro woutsotsi unoda ruramisiro huru mumufambiro wose wose woutsotsi. Dare Gurusa rakataura kuti muitiro wakafanira unopunzwa apo hurumende inoshandisa chipupuriro chenhema nenzira yokuziva kuwana kutendeseka, apo inodzvinyirira ufakazi hwokupa mhaka uhwo huri chinhu kukuva nemhaka kana kuti chirango, kana kuti apo inobatikana mumufambiro unokatyamadza hana. Mutezo weGuer Procession Clause unodawo kuti vapomerwi vanokwaniriswa kuti vamire, kuti zvikumbiro zvine mhaka zvive zvinoziva uye zvokuzvidira, uye kuti hurumende ibvumikise chinhu chiri chose chemhosva yacho chisingapanikirirwi nenzira ine mufungo.

Kushandiswa kwemuitiro wakafanira mumhaka dzoutsotsi kwakachinja zvikuru munguva, neWarren Court muna 1960 inofutunura dziviriro dzematsotsi kupfurikidza nezvisarudzo zvechiratidzo zvakadai se Gideon v. Wainwright[ [1963], iyo yakatanga kodzero yokupa zano nokuda kwevakwiridziridziri vemhosva mumhaka yeutsotsi, uye Mapp v. Ohio [1961], iyo yakashandisa mutemo wokutonga kuitiswa kwenhau. Izvi zvisarudzo zvakaratidzira kuziva kuti mutoo wakafanira unokosha kuvimbisa mhaka dzoutsotsi uye kudzivirira hurumende kupfurikidza nokushandisa simba rayo.

Kufambira Mberi Kwakafanira Mukuziviswa Kwehurumende

Kudzivirira kwakafanira kunoshandawo mudare rehurumende, apo hurumende kupfurikidza nematare ayo inopedza nharo pakati pemapati avanhu kana kuti pakati pebato ravanhu voga nehurumende. Dare reChiitiko rinoda kuti vatongi vagamuchire ziviso yakakwana yezvinenge zvichitongwa pazviri uye mukana une revo wokunzwika pamberi pedare risingasaruri. Ikoku kunobatanidza kodzero yokupa ufakazi, kupikisa rondedzero dzapamutemo, uye kukwirira zvisarudzo zvakaipa kudare rapamusoro.

Dare Rapamusoro rakaziva kuti mutoo wakafanira haudi mwero mumwe chetewo wedziviriro yapamutemo mumhaka dzavagari vemo semumhaka dzoutsotsi, asi zvinodikanwa zvikuru zveziviso nebanza zvokunzwika zvichishanda nesimba rakazara. Mumashoko akapoteredza okurasikirwa nehurumende, somuenzaniso, Dare rakarangarira kuti muitiro wakafanira unoda kuti varidzi vezvinhu vagamuchire chiziviso chakakodzera panguva yakafanira uye mukana wokukwikwidza kurasikirwa kwavo pamberi pezvinhu zvavo kunoitwa zvechigarire nehurumende. Mumashoko akapoteredza omusengwa wehurumende, Dare rakarangarira kuti muitiro wakafanira unoda ufakazi hwakajekasha uye hunopwisa munhu asati agona kupiwa nenzira yokusada kurongwa kwendangariro.

Kushandiswa kwemuitiro wakafanira munhau dzavagari vemo kunomutsa mibvunzo inokosha pamusoro pokusvika kururamisiro, zvikurukuru nokuda kwavanhu vanowana mari yakaderera avo vangasakwanisa kuwana mumiririri wapamutemo. Nepo Dare reChiitiko Claus risati richingoda kuti hurumende ipe zano munhau dzevagari vemo, Dare Gurusa rakaziva kuti muitiro wakafanira ungada dziviriro chaiyo muzvinoitika apo kodzero dzinokosha dziri mungozi kana kuti apo njodzi yekushaiwa zvikanganiso iri zvikurukuru huru.

Zvinetso Zvinotevera

Kuchengeteka Kwenyika Yose Nemaitiro Akakodzera

Kurwisa kwemagandanga kwakaitika musi waSeptember 11, 2001, kwakaita kuti hurumende yeUnited States iite mabasa akasiyana - siyana ainetsa vanhu, kusanganisira kusungwa kwemagandanga aifungidzirwa kuti aiitirwa njodzi paGuantanamo Bay, kushandiswa kwemauto kuedza vasungwa, uye kuongorora kusingabvumirwi kukurukurirana kwevanhu vari muUnited States nevanhu vari kune dzimwe nyika.

Dare rapamusoro rakataura dzimwe dzeidzi nhau munhevedzano yezvisarudzo izvo zvinosimbisa ukoshi hukuru hwegadziriro yakafanira kunyange mumigariro yechengeteko yenyika. Mu HAMDI v. Rumsfeld [2004], Dare rakataura kuti vagari vemo veU.S. vanochengetwa sevarwi vane muitiro wakafanira wakafanira wokukwikwikwidzanisa varwi kuti vave nehwaro yechokwadi yokupfiga pamberi pomugadziri wechisarudzo. [FLT] Bhoumete v. [FLT:] Bush [2008] [i] [i]), Dare rinorangarira kuti varwisimudziri paGuanmo Bay vane mamiriro ezvinhu makuru emitemo yomutemo kuti vasarunduko, varambe pamutemo kuhwirunduko rwechitoo.

Kugadzirwa Kwemakombiyuta, Kuva Woga, uye Kushandiswa Kwemadhigirii

Kufambira mberi kwokukurumidza kweruzivo rwokugadzira zvinhu kwakaparira denho itsva idzo vagadziri vebumbiro remitemo vaisagona kukarira. Kukwira kwenzvero dzemichina, kuunganidzwa kwemashoko, uye kuitwa kwemitemo yemitemo zvinomutsa mibvunzo inokosha pamusoro penzira inokosha yebasa muzera remichina. Apo masangano ehurumende anounganidza zvitsama zvikuru zvemashoko omunhu oga kupfurikidza nokunzvera kwemagetsi, kuchera mashoko, kana kuti kuraira mashoko anochengetedzwa, idziviriroi dzinoshanda? Apo maatrufabheti anoshandiswa kuita zvisarudzo pamusoro pechikwereti, basa, imba, kana kuti chiratidzo, ikodzeroi idzo vanhu vane nadzo kunzwisisa nokudenha zvisarudzo izvozvo?

Dare rapamusoro rakaita nhano dzinokosha kutambanudzira dziviriro dzakafanira kunzvimbo yemipimo, zvikurukuru mumashoko akapoteredza okunzvera kweGavhura kweChina nomutemo wokubvuta. Mu Riley v. California [2014] (2014, Dare rakaramba kuti mapurisa asingagoni kunzvera zviri mukati meserura pasina pamutemo, achiziva kuti maselfoni eserura emazuva ano ane mashoko akawanda omunhu oga ayo anoumba zvakavanzika zvinokosha. Mu ] Carplatent v. United[FLT] [FLT]] [20]]), Dare rairangarira kuti kuwanikwa kwemasero renhau dzekare, rinoita matepiki egoreromaseroko anodiwa kunzvera, kuramba dzidziso yechitatu yaibvumira kuwanikwa nematare enhareji.

Zviitiko izvi zvinomirira nhanho dzinokosha dzokudzivirira muitiro wakafanira muzera remitemo, asi denho dzinokosha dzinosara. Kushandiswa kwemaatomu anotaurwa kuti anoshanda pakupa mutongo wetsotsi, somuenzaniso, kunomutsa kunetseka pamusoro pokuona zvakanaka, kuzvidavirira, uye kusasarura kuti gadziriro dzegamuchidzanwa dzokuronga dzingasanyatsotaura. Nyanzvi nevanotsigira vari kudana kuti "muitiro wakafanira weatomuscrome" nheyo dzingada kujeka kweatmalgoric, kodzero yokutsanangura, uye kutarisirwa kwegadziriro dzomunhu dzokuita zvisarudzo zveatomukiro.

Kutama Nokutakurwa

Mutemo wokutora unogovera imwe nharaunda umo dziviriro dzakafanira dzave dziri nhau yekurukurirano huru nepanikiro. Dare Rapamusorosoro rakarangarira kare kuti Chiteshi cheChiito chaClaus chinoshanda kuvanhu vose mukati meUnited States, pasinei zvapo nenzvimbo yavo yokutama, asi ukuru hwedziviriro dzemitemo mukubuda munyika dzakaganhurirwa nedziviriro dzekudzivirirwa kwevatami senhau yechisarudzo choutongi panzvimbo pekodzero dzapamutemo. Vasingamirirwi vanotarisana nenhau dzokubviswa kwehurumende vane maruramiro okucherekedza nokunzwa, kodzero yokupa zano pandyiko yavo vamene, uye mukana wokuwana uchapupu hunonzvera, asi dziviriro dzinowanika mudare rokutama kunogara munyika kazhinji kazhinji kazhinji dzinowanika kupfuura idzo dzinowanika mudare routsotsi.

Kupindirana kwemiitiro yokuchengetwa kwevatami vekubuda munyika nomutemo weutsotsi kwakaparira itiro hanya chaidzo, zvikurukuru muzvinoitika umo vasiri vagari vemo vane zvisungo zvirefu kuUnited States vari musundo wokusungwa nokubviswa kwakavakirwa pamitemo youtsotsi. Kushandiswa kwehurumende yemiitiro yokubvisa yakarongwa, iyo inobvumira vakuru vakuru vakuru vanoenda kundoraira kubviswa pasina kutongwa mumamiriro ezvinhu akati, vakadenhwawo sevanoputsa muitiro wakafanira. Sezvinoramba kuchengetwa kwezvo kubuda munyika kuchiva nhau yezvamatongerwe enyika, kukumbirwa kwegadziriro yedziviriro yetsika kudzimwe nzvimbo mukubviswa kwezvibvumirano kunoramba kuri nzvimbo inotambudza yokubudirira kwapamutemo.

Nei Zvichikosha Kuti Utongi Hwehurumende Huve Hwakakodzera?

Muitiro wakafanira haisi dzidzisowo zvayo yapamutemo; rutivi rukuru rwokutonga kwehurumende yehurumende yegutsaruzhinji uye mutemo. Iro rinovimbisa kuti zviito zvehurumende zvinodzorwa nenzvero yapamutemo, kuti vanhu vane banza rine revo rokudenha zvisarudzo zvehurumende izvo zvinotapura upenyu hwavo, uye kuti kushandiswa kwesimba rehurumende kunodzorwa negadziriro dzakarurama noruremekedzo nokuda kwekodzero dzomunhu oga. Pasina muitiro wakafanira, hurumende inova inova inonyengera uye isingadeyi kutedzerwa, uye vanhu vanosiyiwa vari vanyajambwa nezvido zveavo vane simba.

Kudzivirirwa pahurumende inodzvinyirira kunokosha kunyanya kuvanhu vasina simba rezvematongerwe enyika rokudzivirira zvavanoda kuburikidza nehurumende yegutsaruzhinji.

Uyezve, muitiro wakafanira unoshanda basa rinokosha nokuda kwezviito zvehurumende. Apo zvisarudzo zvehurumende zvinoitwa kupfurikidza nemiitiro inoruramisira neinojeka, vanhu vane bviro huru yokugamuchira zvisarudzo izvozvo kunyange apo vasingabvumirani nomuuyo. Nzwisiso yokururama kwetsika inokosha kuchengeta chivimbo chavose mumasangano ehurumende uye kutongwa kwomutemo. Mupfungwa iyi, muitiro wakafanira hausati uri dziviriro bedzi nokuda kwavanhu asiwo hwaro nokuda kwoukuru nokutsiga kwoutongi hwedemokrati.

mhedziso

Gadziriro yakafanira inoramba iri rutivi rune donzo rapamutemo reAmerica, ichidzivirira vanhu muchiito chehurumende chinosarudzwa nepo vachichinjira kuzvinetso zvitsva nemigariro. Kuvambira pamavambo azvo muMagna Carta kusvikira kukushanda kwayo kwazvino uno mumutemo wokudzora, ruramisiro youtsotsi, uye zera remitauro, nheyo yokuti hurumende inofanira kuremekedza miitiro yakarurama nekodzero dzinokosha pamberi pokunyima vanhu vamwe navamwe upenyu, rusununguko, kana kuti pfuma yakabvumikisa kuva inochinjika zvikuru. Kunzwisisa nheyo dzemipimo yemiitiro yeprocedavial neascro yakafanira yazvinoumba kukura, zviitiko zvakatanhamara zvakaumba kukura kwavo, uye denho dzazvinovapo panguva inotendwa kuti zvive zvinokosha nokuda kwokusimudzira kuva noruzivo rwokuva vanozivikanwa uye kutsigira mipimo yeruramisiro neruramisiro izvo zviri pamwoyo weAmerica.

Sevagari vemo, vadzidzisi, uye nyanzvi dzemitemo, tinogoverana mutoro wokuva nechokwadi chokuti muitiro wakafanira unopfuurira kubatira donzo rawo guru rokudzivirira rusununguko rwomunhu mumwe nomumwe muchiito chehurumende inozvisarudzira. Ikoku kunoda kwete bedzi kunzwisisa mutemo sezvauri asiwo kuva nomubvunzo wakakomba pamusoro pezvinodikanwa mumuitiro mutsva uye unochinja. Nguva yemberi yegadziriro yakafanira ichatsamira pakuzvipira kwedu pamwe chete kunheyo yokuti hakuna munhu anofanira kunyimwa kodzero dzavo pasina kucherekedza kune revo ine revo, mukana wakarurama wokunzwiwa, uye kuremekedza rusununguko runokosha urwo Bumbiro remitemo rinodzivirira.

Nokuda kwokuraviwazve pamusoro penhau nokushandiswa kwomuitiro wakafanira, nzvera Cornell Information Institute yemuitiro wakafanira, project yedare guru reOyez inopeta [, uye [FLT]] Consitution Annotection of the fibstruction Programme yeChibvumirano cheFind Claus Claus yeFind Claus [.