Kugadziridzwa kweSavente Amendment kuBumbiro Remitemo reUnited States kunovimbisa kodzero yokutongwa kwedare rinobetsera vatongi mune dzimwe nhau dzevagari vemo, kuchichengetedza dziviriro inokosha muBill of Rights. Kugadziriswa uku kunochengetedza chinhu chinokosha chomutemo weEngland uye kunoratidza kutsunga kweVakaumba kudzivirira vagari vomunyika pakunyengerwa uye kuva nechokwadi chokuti vanhuwo zvavo vane basa rakananga mukutarisira ruramisiro. Nepo kazhinji kazhinji vanofukidzwa nomubiyavo weutsotsi, Sikisith Amendment, Regever Rendement inoramba iri nzvero inokosha pahurumende nesimba rehurumende munhandare yehurumende.

Mavambo Enhau Nokurevererwa

Mutemo Wavose weEngland Nezvakaitika Kuvateri

Kodzero kukutonga kwedare redare revagari vemo rehurumende yeAmerica yakatangira zvikuru mutsika dzemitemo dzechiNgezi, inodzokera shure kuvimbiso yorutongeso yaMagna Carta yevezera rake. Pakasvika zana ramakore rechigumi nemanomwe, matare eEngland aishandisa nguva dzose majaji mumhaka dzavagari vemo dzinobatanidza zvinhu, zvibvumirano, uye zvikwata. VaColonist muAmerica vaikoshesa kodzero iyi uye vaiiona sedziviriro inodzivirira kuchiremera chedare rehurumende chehurumende chinosatenderwa. Apo vakuru vakuru veBritain vakaraira mitemo yebhizimisi isina kururama uye matare edare rinotonga mabhishopi mumatare ehurumende, pfundero vakakuwedzera pfundero. Chiziviso cheHumo chai chai zvikurukuru kutsorotswa kwedare rinotonga naMambo George III.

Kokorodzano yeBumbiro reMitemo Nezvinodikanwa Zvinorwisana Nehosha

Bumbiro reMitemo rapakuvamba rakanyoreswa muna 1787 rakanga risina dziviriro yakajeka nokuda kwokutongwa kwedare ravagari vemo. Vashori veAnti-Fedalist .__akanyengedzeri pakusiiwa uku, vachiramba kuti mutongi ane simba wehurumende aigona kusekesa miitiro yedare rehurumende ndokubvisa maruramiro edare. Mumhinduro, First Congress yakakarakadza nhevedzano yegadzirisol, kubatanidza icho chaizova Gebetic Amendetic Amendment. Gamendmentss yakasimbisa kuti kodzero yokutonga muzviitiko zvavanatongi yakanga yatotosimbiswa kare mukushanda kwehurumende uye inofanira kuchengetwa nenzira yemitemo pamwero yehurumende. Bhuku reFirst Congism haiiti kuti iveridzime rudyi; kubatanidza icho chichava fraservent [FF:] pamutemo wechiito muChirungu chechiNgekidzo muChirungu chakavapo pasi pe17]

Kucheneswa Muna 1791

Pakasvika December 1791, nhamba inodikanwa yenyika yakanga yatendera Bill of Rights, uye Seventh Amendment yakava rutivi rweBumbiro reMitemo. Mashoko ayo anoratidzira kubvumirana pane zvisina kufanira: nepo kugadziriswa kwacho kunoshanda kumatare ehurumende, kunosiya miitiro yakananga yakadai seukuru hwedare redare redare redare rapamutemo uye kusava nekodzero dzedare.

Mashoko Negadziriro

“ Mumasuti pamutemo wevose, umo uko ukoshi mugakava huchapfuura madhora makumi maviri, maruramiro okutonga kunoitwa navatongi achachengetwa, uye hapana idi rinotongwa nedare rinobetsera vatongi, neimwe nzira richaongororwazve muDare ripi neripi reUnited States, kupfuura mukuwirirana nemitemo yomutemowo zvawo.”

“ Mutemo WeCommon” Musiyano

Chikuru kugadziridzo imashoko okuti “Mazano pamutemo wavose.” Ikoku kunonongedzera kunhau idzo munhau dzingadai dzakanzwiwa mumatare emitemo eEngland . inopesana pamusoro pezvakakuvadzwa zvemari(apo anopesana nesutus mukusaita, iyo yakanzwiwa navatongi pasina majaji uye inobatwa nemirairo, kuita kwakananga, kana kuti mimwe mishonga isati iri yehurumende. Nhasi, matare ehurumende abatanidza mutemo nemiitiro yakatevedzerwa, asi nhau dzichiripo. Kana mhaka ichitsvaka nyaranyo yapamutemo yakakwana yapamutemo (mari inobviswa), Pendeko yeSangano yeSangano reSangano inowanzoshanda. Kana ichitsvaka kuyamurano inosa kusingasarumbidzika.

Dhesvo Ye $20 Nebasa Rayo Rokuzvinyima

Kugadziridzwa kunoisa chitsama chiduku mugakava ra $20(a icho chine ukoshi hukuru muna 1791 asi chisingakoshi nhasi. Congress haina kutongovandudza nhamba iyi, asi mirau yehurumende zvino inoisa mwero wakakwirira zvikuru wehurumende (musati, $75 000 nokuda kwokudzorwa kwemhatsa). Senhau inoshanda, nhamba ye $20 haiwanzotsaurirwa; matare ehurumende anoidudzira kungoda bedzi gakava rechokwadi pamusoro pechitsama chisiri chitsama. Kunyanguvezvo, chitsama chitsama chitsama chenhau chenhau chenhau chapanguva dzose chakaparira gakava pamusoro pesimba rePurcess kuti chigadzirike.

Kuchengetedzwa, Kwete Chisiko

Kugadziridzwa kwomutauro weChirungu (*) “kuchachengetwa”) kunojekesa kuti kodzero haina kusikwa itsva. Panzvimbo pezvo, Bumbiro reMitemo rinodzivirira kutonga kwedare redare sezvakwakanga kuri mumutemo wavose muna 1791. Uku kurava kwapakuvamba kunoreva kuti matare ehurumende anofanira kutarira kumuitiro wenhau weEngland pakusarudza kana rudzi rwakati rwenhau rusingadzorwi. Nokufamba kwenguva, Dare Rapamusoro rakaziva kuti kugadziridzwawo kwomutemo kunoganhurira simba romutongi rokutonga pamusoro pezviwanwa zvedare redare redare renhau; nokudaro, mutongi wehurumende haagoni kupa muedzo mutsva pamaidi kunze kwokuva pasi pomutemo wavose.

Rutivi Rwe Amendejistimende Yechinomwe

Nhau Dzinokodzera Kutongwa kwaJury

Findsear Amendment inoshanda kudare rehurumende rakafara, kubatanidza:

  • [[[FORT:0] Kubatanidza kukakavadzana - kutaura kwokuputsa chibvumirano kutsvaka kuvadziko yemari.
  • [ Zviito [ - kuvadziko yomunhu oga, kuzvidza, kuregeredza, uye zvigadzirwa.
  • [ propertition[ - kudarika, kutendeuka, uye zviito zvamazita okuremekedza zvakanyarara (apo kusunungurwa kwapamutemo kutsvakwa).
  • Sabita mudzidzisi anotaura kuti - mirau yakawanda yehurumende, yakadai semitemo inorwisana nokusawirirana uye yokuchengetedzwa kwemiganhu, inopa kodzero yepamutemo kukutonga kwedare rinobetsera vatongi uko kunodawo Pendekosti Amendment.

Zvisinei, kugadziridzwa kwacho hakuvimbisi vatongi mumhaka idzo dzakafanira chose chose, dzakadai sechatanuro, kodzero yokuchengeta mwana, kana kuti kuita chibvumirano chakati. uyewo, suturo dzinorwisana nehurumende yehurumende pasi peFederal Tort Ponties Act inoedzwa kumutongi, kwete mutongi, nemhaka yokuti mhaka idzodzo hadzisati dziri “dzino mufungo wavose” sezvinonzwisiswa nenhau dzenhau.

Mhaka Dzisina Kusarura

Kusarudza kana kutaura kwacho kuri kwapamutemo kana kuti kwakaenzana kunogona kuva kwakaoma. Dare rinoshandisa “muedzo wenhau” kupfurikidza nokubvunza kana kutaura kwacho kungadai kwakaunzwa mudare romutemo kana kuti kwakarurama muna 1791. Mu Markman v. Westview Institutions, Inc. [1996], Dare rapamusoro rakashandisa iyi muedzo kuumba mhaka ndokutaura kuti kuvakwa inhau yomutemo nokuda kwomutongi. Zvimwe zvisipo zvazvino uno zvinobatanidza:

  • [ Zviitiko zveBhankiptation – nhau huru hadzisati dziri dzenhema.
  • Chibvumirano choubati [ - kutonga kwesangano kwakawandasa hakugoveri majaji, uye Dare Rapamusorosoro rakatsigira ikoku chero bedzi nhau yacho ichibatanidza “maruramiro avanhu vose.”
  • matare maduku anotaura [ – masangano angaparira mapoka maduku ezvibvumirano pasina matare ematare.

Iyi ganhuriro inowanzosimbiswa nemhaka yokuti mapoka anotsvaka kudzivisa vatongi angaedza kuronga kutaura kwawo sekodzero dzavose dzinoenzana.

Matare Anorwisana Nehurumende

Nenzira inopesana, Seventh Amendment haina kutongo “kupinzwa” mukurwisana nehurumende kupfurikidza neKineth Amendment. Ikoku kunoreva kuti matare ehurumende haadikanwi nemitemo kugovera matare edare rehurumende pasi pemipimo mimwe cheteyo. Bumbiro remitemo rehurumende rimwe nerimwe kana kuti mirau inogadza kodzero mudare rehurumende. Dzimwe nyika dzinovimbisa kutongwa kunyange nokuda kwemhosva duku dzedare, nepo dzimwe dzichiganhurira kumatare akati. Dare repamusoro harisati richiramba kuisa dare reSandenderncation, dzichirangarira kuti kodzero yacho haisi inokosha kumutemo weAmerica werusununguko rwakarairwa. Somugumisiro, mudare rehurumende ringasava nekodzero kudare kunyange kana nyaya yacho chaiyo mudare romubatanidzwa yaizodaida munhu mumwe chete.

Kutongwa kweJury

Kusarudza Chiratidzo cheJury (Voir Dire)

Muitiro wokusarudza vatongi vevagari vemo vasingasaruri, vanozivikanwa sevatongi vanotyisa, unobvumira vatongi namagweta kubvunza vangava vatongi pamusoro pemhindu yenhau yacho, zivo yenhau, uye mano okubatira. Vavariro ndeyokuunganidza boka rinogona kusarudza maidi nenzira yakarurama. Rutivi rumwe norumwe rungashandisa denho (kuramba vatongi pasina donzo) munhamba yakaganhurirwa, pamwe chete nedenho dzechisakiso (chisina kuganhurirwa, asi chinofanira kururamiswa). Matare anofanira kuvimbisa kuti chivanze chedare redare rinobetsera chinotonga chinoratidzira kubatira divi renzanga, kunyange zvazvo Dare Gurusase rakarangarira kuti chinodikanwa chesikisiti cheSatetesiti reSakisi Setempiro chinobatira bedzi muzvinoitika zvoutsotsi; humwe ruzhinji runogarari rungangodzo runofanira kuganhurnwa mukuva rwazvo.

Basa RaJury: Kuwana Chokwadi uye Kukuvadza

Mukutonga kwedare rinobetsera vatongi vehurumende, vatongi vanosarudza mibvunzo yeidi uye vanoyera kuvadziko. Mutongi anorairidza vatongi pamutemo wakafanira uye anotarisira nhau. Zviwanwa zvechokwadi zvedare rinobetsera vatongi zvinofanira kuva nechiremera chikuru; mutongi angatendeudzira chisarudzo chedare redare rinobetsera kana bedzi chiri chose chose chisingabvumirwi noufakazi kana kuti kana kuvadziko yacho yakanyanyisa kana kuti isina kukwana zvokukatyamadza hana. Segeven Amendment inodzivisa nenzira yakajeka matare ehurumende kuti asarambazve maidi anoedzwa nedare redare rinotonga “mutonge maererano nemitemo yavose”.[1] [8] Mutongi haagoni kungotsiva zvake kana kuti maonero ake nokuda kwemirangariro yedare rinotonga.

Utsinye Neukuru Hwakanaka

Seventh Amendment haidi chisarudzo chakajeka kana kuti ukuru hwakati hwedare redare. Munhau, matare avagari vemo pamutemo wavose kazhinji kazhinji aiumbwa nemitezo ine gumi nemiviri uye aidikanwa kusawirirana. Zvisinei, Dare Gurusa rakatsigira mitemo yehurumende inobvumira rutongeso rusingawirirani rwehurumende (g., Apodaca v. Oregon[FL]]] yakanga iri mhaka youtsotsi; mumashoko akapoteredza, Dare harina kushandisa chinodikanwa chokusawirirana). Dare rehurumende ramagariro renyika ragara rinobatanidza mitezo mitanhatu kutokwana gumi nemiviri kunze kwokuti kubvumira. Kutonga 48 kweFederal Revil Revial Restion Reviture Restion Reconvectivel Respoult pamitezo miteveri yemitezo mitanhatu kutoosero inosarira kupfurikidza neino inosarira kupfurikidza neiyi inosarira kupfurikidza nokusariraniswa kwemiteveri.

Kutapura Tsika Yepamutemo yeAmerica

Kuzvidavirira Kwavagari Vemo

Vatongi vavagari vemo vanobatira basa rokuzvidavirira kunopanikirika, zvikurukuru mumhaka dzedare nemvumo dzinorwisana namasangano ehurumende. Kupfurikidza nokupa vagari vemowo zvavo simba rokusarudza kuva nemhosva nokugadza kuvadziko, vatongi vanopinza mipimo yenzanga mugadziriro yemitemo. Nzvero dzakaratidza kuti majaji anowanzobereka migumisiro inoziviswa zvikuru uye isingachinji kupfuura miedzo yebhenji munharaunda dzakati, uye anogona kubatira sonzvero paruramisiro kana kuti ushati. Kururamisirwa kwedare redarewo kuti ripe ufakazi mugadziriro yavose, ine chiratidzo chikuru chehurumende yehurumende yehurumende yenyika yeAmerica.

Uchapupu Hwokushanda Kwazvo

Nzvero pamatare avagari vemo inokarakadza kuti ivo vanowanzotevera mutemo ndokusanoyera ufakazi, pasinei zvapo necherekedzo pamusoro pezvisarudzo zvemirangariro kana kuti zvisina mufungo. Nzvero ya 2006 yakabudiswa mu Depaul Law Review[ yakawana kuti vatongi vanobvumirana nechisarudzo chedare redare redare redare. Zvisinei, kuitira hanya pamusoro pekudzorwa kwemitongo nerakata yakanyanyisa kwakatungamirira kuchinjo, zvakadai sekero pakuvadziko nemipimo yakawedzerwa yehwirudzuro. Chisarudzuro cheDare Gurusarusarudzo mu BB] yeNorth America v. [FLT][FF:3] (1966]) yakatanga mutengori mukuru pakuparadza, asi inodzivirirazve basa redare rinotonga.

Kutsoropodza uye Kurayira Kuchinja

Vatsoropodzi vanotaura kuti matare avagari vemo anogona kuva anodhura, anotora nguva, uye asingadeyi kuziviswa. Dzimwe mhaka dzezvokutengeserana dzakaoma kwazvo zvokuti vatongi vanoparapatika kuti vanzwisise ufakazi hwokugadzirwa. Vamwe vanocherekedza kuti kodzero yokutonga dare rinotonga inoiswa panhambo nenhambo inowedzera kupfurikidza netsumo dzapamberi pekunyorwa kwechibvumirano mumitengo. Iyi kombanyo iyi yezvokutengeserana mu [[FLT:] AT promonity v. Concepion[FLT'tion] (20) [20] yakatanga gakava gakava pamusoro pokuti kana Bestivel Reformation Reformation Reformation iri kupera mukushanda. Zvikarakadzo zvamakurukota zvechimbiso zvechika) kana kuti vhinzi vhinziro inokuwedzera, asi kudzosera kuremekedza ruremekedzo rwechimo rwechimo rwerudyi.

Kukudzwa Kwazvino Uno Nedenho

Kutanga Kwezviito Zvokutora Matendere uye Zveboka

Mumakumi amakore achangobva kupfuura aya, masangano akapinza zvikamu zvokuisa zvibvumirano zvinobatanidza chinhu chiri chose kubva kumakadhi echikwereti kusvikira kubvumirano dzebasa. Iyi mitsetse inowanzorambidza zviito zveboka uye inoda kukakavadzana kuti ipedzwe nomumiririri mumwe, ichiita kuti ibvise maruramiro kudare redare. Dare guru rakatsigira zvikuru zvikamu zvakadaro pasi peFederal Arbitration Act, kurangarira kuti kunyoresa inhau yebvumirano uye kwete kushaiwa pamutemo. Vatsigiri vanopikisa kuti kudzorwa kwedare kunokurumidza uye kunoderera; vatsoropote kuti kunosekesa Kudzosa Kutenderwa uye kura. Gadziro rinopfuurira muCongresstionstionssworcers, uye mabhii akawanda okupinza mari mumabasa.

Kurevererwa Kwevatarisiri

Mitemo yakawanda yehurumende inoita masangano ehurumende anokakavadzana pasina majaji. Somuenzaniso, Social Security Administration inonzwa zvikumbiro zvokuremara, Environmental Protection Agency inoita kuti pave nokuchengetedzwa kwemitevedzero, uye mitemo yevashandi yehurumende inoitwa kupfurikidza navatongi vehurumende. Dare Rapamusoro rakataura kuti Seventemplete Amendment haishandi apo hurumende inenge ichiita musimba rayo rokumanikidza “kodzero dzavoserose”. [FLT] .[FLD] .[FLD] [12] [200], kana sangano richitsvaka mari yaizoda kuparadzwa mutsika yapamutemo, kodzero yokutonga ingashanda. Nzvimbo iyi yomutemo inoramba isingadzorwi.[FLD [FF:]

Ruzivo Rwokugadzira Zvinhu Nemajeri Echokwadi

Nhenda yeCovorid-19 yakanyandurwa nokuedza kutonga mhaka dzevagari vemo kweruwa kwapakarepo, kunoitwa kupfurikidza nevhidhiyo confect. Migumisiro yapakuvamba inokarakadza kuti kuidzwa chaiko kunogona kuitwa zvakanaka, kunyange zvazvo funganyo dzichiri pamusoro pengwariro yedare, mano okuyera kuvimbika, uye matare ane simba. Mamwe matare ave ane mifananidzo yakavhengana. Sezvo ruzivo rwokugadzirwa kwezvinhu runowedzera, zvinodikanwa zveSeventhern Amendment zve “dare” zvichada kuchinjika. Kugadziriswa kwacho hakuzivikanwi pamusoro pomutongo, naizvozvo matare anofanira kusarudza kana kuzadzika bvumirano yemiteo yemitemo yedare.

mhedziso

Seventh Amendment inoramba iri dziviriro inokosha nokuda kwavagari vemo vanotsvaka ruramisiro kumatare ehurumende. Mavambo ayo enhau mumutemo weChirungu uye kurwisana kwehurumende inotonga nomutemo unopesana nomutemo unosarudzwa kunosimbisa ukoshi hwayo sokunzvera simba redare nerehurumende. Nepo kugadziriswa kwacho kusati kuchivimbisa kutongwa kwedare redare redare redare, pesvedzero yakwo yakapararira muAmerica uye yakaumba kukura kwechisarudzo chenharo. Munhambo yokukwira kwechisarudzo, murairo wakaoma, uye chinjo yeruzivo rwemitengo, kuchengetwa kweSandemende Delete yedare rinobetsera dare redare rehurumende kunokosha kupfuura nakare. Kunzwisisa kwaro, ganhuriro, uye denho dzazvinokoshamira kumunhu upi noupi anokoshesa mhaka yake kuti asarudze mhaka yavo. Nokuti, fungazve kurava [FF]