Kuchinja zvinhu munyika muIndia kwakaita basa rinokosha mukuumba nyika yenzanga yezvemari. Uku kugadziridza kwakatsvaka kugadzirisa kusaenzana kwakadzika mukuva nevhu, kuputsa zvivako zvemitevedzero, uye kusimudzira kuparadzirwa kwenzvimbo kwakaenzana pakati pevagari vomumaruwa. Kunzwisisa mativi epamutemo aichinjo idzi kunokosha kuti dzione simba radzo, zvinetso zvadzo, uye nhamburiko dzinopfuurira kugadziridza kugadziridza mamiriro ezvinhu etsika. Materungwe enyika anotenderwa pamutemo (* kuputsa mitemo yemitemo yemitemo, mitemo yemitemo, uye kutsanangura kugadziridza uye kuoma.) iyi inogovera kuongororwa kwakadza kwakakwana kwemitengo yenyika yokuchinja iri muIndia, kuongorora midzi yazvo, kuongorora mavakirwo emitemo, uye zvinetso zvepamutemo zviri kuitika munguva pfupi.

Kuchinja Zvinhu Kwakaitika MuIndia

Pamberi pokuzvimirira, gadziriro yezvokudzora yeIndia yairatidzirwa netsika yakanyanyonangidzirwa pasi pegadziriro dzakasiana - siana", zamindiri, rirotwari, uye mahalwari(ri imwe neimwe neboka rayo rimene reminusi iro rakabvisa kurenda kuvarimi. Uku kwakaparira gadziriro yokushandisa mari yaishandiswa zvikuru yaichengetedzwa, isati yaita kuti kuunganidzwa kwemari pamusoro peruramisiro yenzanga. Nyika yaiwanzochengetwa navagari vemo vaishairwa, nepo varimi chaivo vakanga vane maruramiro akaganhurirwa kana kuti vasina maruramiro enyika yavakarima. Ikoku kwakaparira gadziriro yokushandisa zvisakafanira iyo yakachengeta varimi vari murombo.

Pashure pokuzvimirira, hurumende yeIndia yakazivisa chinjo dzenyika sechinhu chikuru chokuchinja kwenzanga nezvemari. Chirongwa chokutanga chegore ra556 (1951-56) chakataura zvakajeka kuti chinjo dzevhu dzakanga dziri madikanwa mukuwedzera kwemirimo nokusimudzira ruramisiro yenzanga. Chirongwa chokuvandudza chaibatanidza zvinhu zvitatu zvikuru:

  • Kutora nzvimbo yepakati (mazaminder, jagirdars, zvichingodaro) kuti asvitse mugariro zvakananga navavarimi.
  • [ kuchinja kwokuchinja kuti kugovere chengeteko nokudzora rendi.
  • [ mutemo wepuranga revhu wokuparadzira nyika yakasara pakati pevasina nyika.
  • [ Kusimbiswa kwezvikamu kuvandudza kushanda zvakanaka.

Michina yapamutemo yeidzi chinjo yaifanira kuvakwa kubva pakukwarara. Mitemo inoverengeka yakagadza mitemo yokuparadza zamiminali, kazhinji kazhinji inotungamirira kupanikiridzo yakapfuuridzirwa. Vagadziri veBumbiro reMitemo vakaziva dikanwo yokudzivirira iyi mitemo yokuchinja padenho yedare mukodzero huru, iyo yakatungamirira kukugadziridzwa chaiko kwebumbiro remitemo (a musoro unoramba uri pakati penhau yemitemo yechinjo yenyika.

Kuchinja Zvinhu Mumutemo

Gadziriro Dzebumbiro reMitemo

Dare reIndia rinopa zvose zviri zviviri hwaro neganhuriro nokuda kwemitemo yokuvandudza nyika. Pakutanga, mitemo yokuchinja nyika yakatarisana nemhinganidzo pasi peChikamu 31, icho chinovimbisa maruramiro enzvimbo. Mitemo yapakuvamba yokuparadza yaidenhwa pazvikonzero zvokuputsa urwu maruramiro makuru. Kukurira kudzivisa dare, Bumbiro remitemo rakagadziriswa kanoverengeka. Chikuru chegadziridzo chinobatanidza:

  • First Amendment (1951): Kuisa Zvikamu 31A ne3B, zvakaisa mitemo yokuchinja nyika pasina kuoma pasi peChikamu 14, 19, uye 31. Chikamu 31B chakasuma Ninth Scheme, apo mirau yaigona kuiswa kuti idzidzivirire pakuhwirudzurwa kwekutonga.
  • Amendment yeChina (19555): Chikamu 31A chakajekeswa kuti muripo wokuwana chinhu haufaniri kuva ukoshi hwokutengesa, zvichibvumira nyika kusarudza mwero une mwero.
  • [Fourth Amendment [1988]: Chikamu 31 (maruramiro ezvinhu) chakabva chabviswa sekodzero huru ndokuiita kodzero yebumbiro remitemo pasi peChikamu 300A, icho chinogovera kuti hakuna munhu achanyimwa chinhu kupfurikidza nechiremera chomutemo.

Mukuwedzera, Directive Principles of State Policy, zvikurukuru Chikamu 39(b) uye (c), zvinoraira kugoverwa kwakaenzana kwezviwanikwa nokudziviswa kwepfuma, zvichigovera musengwa wetsika nebumbiro remitemo nokuda kwokuchinja nyika. Masangano ehurumende ane simba rokugadza mitemo yokuchinja nyika pasi pekupinda 18 (Nyika) kweRusarudzo rweHurumende muSeven Segent Scheme.

Mitemo Isingachinji

Nokukurumidza pashure pekuzvimirira, inoti uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal, uye Madras vakaita mutemo wokuparadza mamesendi. UP Zamitari Abolition and Land Reformes Act, 1950, muenzaniso unoratidza . Iyi mitemo yaiparadza kodzero dzezamipitards, yakadzifukidza munyika, uye yakapa kodzero dzokuva murimi chaivo. Zvisinei, muripo waibhadharwa kune vaichimbova vanzi, uye muitiro wepamutemo waiwanzova unononoka uye waikwikwikwidza. Pakasvika mugumo wama1950, nyika zhinjisakanga dzaparadza kodzero dzevamiri, kunyange zvazvo vagari kazhinji kazhinji vasina kugamuchira kodzero dzokuvatambira.

Mitemo Inopeta Nyika

Kuiswa kwesirini yevhu . Kuisa muganhu mukuru panyika ingava nomunhu kana kuti mhuri yakabata, kwakanga kuri kuchinja kukuru kwakananga kukuparadzira nyika yakasara. Miganhu yokuzvinyima yaisiyana nehurumende uye kurongwa kwevhu (mavhiri aidzorwa. asingatakuriswi). Kazhinji kazhinji, matenga edenga aivambira pamaeka 10 kusvikira ku 54, neganhuriro dzakaderera dzokudiridza nyika. Supersit yaifanira kuwanikwa nehurumende ndokugoverwa kuvarimi vaduku varimi veminda.

Kuitwa kwapamutemo kwemitemo yesirini kwakabvumikisa kuva kwakaoma zvikuru. Vawandi vakashandisa nzira dzakasiana - siana kunzvenga zvitsama zvedenga: kutengeserana kwebenami (kubvisa nzvimbo muzita ravamwe), kuparira zvikamu zvisina kutsarukana, kuchinja kushandiswa kwevhu, uye kuisa mabhii. Hurumende zhinji dzakaita mitemo yesikirini muma 1960 na 1970, asi nyika chaiyoiyo yakasara yakaziviswa ndokuparadzirwa yakanga iri pasi pezvipfupi. Somuenzaniso, kuvamba kwama 1990, inenge 5% bedzi yenyika inona kutsaurwa yakanga yaziviswa kuva yakasara, uye yakawanda yayo yakanga iri yoruvara rwakashata. Tsamba dzemitemo nokuchengetwa kwakaneta zvakanga zviri zvikonzero zvikuru nokuda kwokukundikana uku.

Kuchinja Kusingadzoreki

Chinjo dzinodzorwa nevavariro yokudzivirira varimi vamabhizimisi pakudzingwa, kudzora rendi (inowanzoiisa pa 20-25% yezvigadzirwa), uye pakupedzisira kupa kodzero dzokuva muridzi kuvagari vemo pashure penhambo yakati. Nyika zhinji dzakapfuura mabasa eTenancy, akadai seBombay Tenancy and Agricultural Lands Act, 1948, uye Kerala Land Reforms Act, 1963. Mitemo iyi yakapinza mifungo yakadai se “kurangarirwa kuva chinhu” uko vagari vemo vaigona kutenga nzvimbo yavairima.

Zvisinei, chinjo dzinodzorwa dzinowanzodzorwa navagari vemo vanozivisa vagari sevashandi kana kuti vapfumi, kana kuti kupfurikidza nokushandisa zvibvumirano zvokutaura. Muzvinhu zvakafanana neWest Bengal, Mutem Bargal (1988) yakanyoreswa kuva vatsigiri vamaniki ndokuvapa chengeteko, asi kuita kwakasiana zvikuru munyika. Modell Agricul Land Letting Act, 2016 (yakaitwa na NITIAyog) kunomirira kuedza kusunungura nokukurudzira kuva varimi vane gumi kupfurikidza nokubvumira nyika kubatira nokudzivirira maruramiro apamutemo nokudzivirira kodzero dzavaridzi varadzi vemo.

Zvinetso Nenhau Dzepamutemo

Kusawirirana Nenhema

Chimwe chedenho dzapamutemo dzinotyisa zvikurusa chave chiri mafashamo emhosva dzinomuka mukuitwa kwenyika. Kushatiswa pamusoro pomugariro wokushanda, chizivikanwo chenyika chakasara, uye muripo zvakavhara matare kwamakumi amakore. Kunyange pashure pokupera kwemitemo mizhinji yenyika yekare, kudzorwa kwenhau. Somuenzaniso, gakava rine chokuita ne kutengeserana (kuchengeta zvinhu pasi pamazita enhema) kunoda kunzvera nokukwirira kukuru. Bhange pashure pokupera kwemitemo yetsika dzenyika, 1988 (mutsivi weProgist) rinoshandiswa kubatanidza nyika inoitwa nenzira isiri yapamutemo, asi kuchengetwa kwayo kunononoka.

Mukuwedzera, musiano pakati penyika yourimi neisiriririmo ($FLT") yakaita kuti pave nenhamba huru. Hurumende dzave dzichikundikana kuvandudza zvinyorwa zvenyika, zvichitungamirira kukusawirirana kuti matare anofanira kupedza. 2019 PRS Legistive Research yakataura kuti mune dzimwe nyika, inopfuura chikamu chimwe chezvitatu chenhau dzedare reruwa zvinobatanidza makakavarakatanwa enyika. Ona: [[FLT:] PRS: Land Distices and Land Records.

Zvinyorwa Zvenyika Zvakakwana Nokunyoreswa

Chinodikanwa chapamutemo chenheyo nokuda kwokuchinja nyika ipi neipi chakarurama, chakasvika pazvino uno zvinyorwa zvenyika. Nenzira isingafadzi, gadziriro yezvinyorwa zvepasi yeIndia yave isina kutsarukana. Nyika zhinji dzichiri kutsamira pamanyoro emaoko asina kukwana kana kuti asingashandiswi. Inconstencies pakati peRecord of Rights (RR), mepu, uye magwaro okunyoresa zvinoumba pamutemo. Breact, 1908, inoda kunyoreswa kwokumanikidzirwa kwemitengo yenzvimbo dzose, asi kunyoresa hakupi musoro wenhau yokutamisirwa. Ikoku kunoparira kutaura kwakawanda pamusoro pepasuruso imwe cheteyo netsoro.

Hurumende yakatanga Digal India Records Records Programme (DILRMP) [DILMP] muna 2008 kuti iite zvinyorwa zvekombiyuta nokuvandudza, kuwiriranisa zvinyorwa zvevhu nezvinyorwa, uye kufamba kudiving titring. Kufambira mberi kwakanga kwakasiyana; dzimwe nyika dzakafanana naGujaratat, Karnaka, uye Maharashtra dzakaita stadess, nepo dzimwe dzinoshaikwa. 2021 noUnistry of Rulbal Development yakaratidzira kuti apo inenge 88% yezvinyorwa yakanga yabatanidzwa nedata yokunyoresa. Ona: [[FL:] DALMP]

Kuparadza Mitemo Yokuvirisa uye Benami Trangers

Pasinei zvapo namakumi amakore emitemo yesirini, kusaenda kwomwero mukuru wakapfuurira. Vashandisi vamabhizimisi vakashandisa zvishandiso zvapamutemo zvakadai sezvipo, mibayiro, zvikwereti, uye gadziriro dzokushanda kuti varambe vakabata pasi pesiringi. Bhenami Transactions (Profication) Act, 1988 Act kuti vaidzoredze izvi, asi kuti ive isina mazino kwamakore. Muna 2016, kugadziriswa kwamashoko kwakakwana kwakaunzwa mumijeko, kubatanidza kuiswa mutorongo nokuvigwa kwenzvimbo yembo. Zvisinei, chibvumirano pasi peChiratisitisiti yeBM, 1988[FLD [FLD] yakaitwa, uye zvinoitika zvakawanda zvinosara pamberi peBenmaprocendicellact.

Tsananguro dzinotonga dzakatapurawo kuchengetwa. Somuenzaniso, Dare Gurusa mu [FT:0]R. K. Arora v. State of Uttar Pradesh (1962) raidavira kuti mitemo yepuraneti inofanira kunzwisiswa zvikuru, uye mativi ose anofarirwa namuridzi wevhu. Zvisarudzo zvinodzongonyedza dzimwe nguva simba rehurumende rokuvhurazve nzvimbo dzakagadzwa. Izvi zvitedzo zvapamutemo zvinoreva kuti mipambo mizhinji yepasi yakapukunyuka purofiti.

Mitemo Yenyika Inosarura Vamwe

Imwe nhau yapamutemo inodzokororwa inyasi yekodzero dzenyika. Munhau, mitemo yenhaka yakada varume, uye chinjo kazhinji kazhinji nenzira yokusangwarira yaibvisa vakadzi. Chibvumirano cheHindu purofision Act, 1956, chakapa vakadzi maruramiro akaenzana kunyika yokurima pashure bedzi pokugadziriswa muna 2005, iyo yaireva nyika dzose (asi kugadzirwa kunoramba kusisina simba. Mitemo mizhinji yehurumende ichiri kuziva bedzi “mukuru weimba” savarume. Vanofirwa vanotarisana nedenho dzakati mukutsvaka kodzero dzomumusha. Nepo vamwe vanotaura saMaharashtra naKarnaka vakaita gadziriro dzemazita okugoverana munyika, pesvedzero yose yakaganhurirwa. Ona: [[FLD:]] .USRAID Land: Vakadzi, uye Nyika muIndia:[FUPT]

Kufambira Mberi uye Kuchinja Kwezvinhu

Kuchinjwa uye Kuchinjwa Kwemarekodhi Enyika

DILRMP yave iri purogiramu inodzora , asi fambiro mberi dzazvino uno dzinobatanidza kutanga kwe shopu dzemipimo yakavakirwa pa, kuvhengana neAdahaar nokuda kwezivikanwo, uye gadziriro dzendege dzekugumisa munzvimbo dzakasarudzwa. Muna 2020, hurumende yakagadzawo [[FLT:] Model Land Records System[[[FLT:]] kuderedza zvinyorwa zvinotemwarati. Zvisinei, chinyorwa chapamutemo (chidzokororwa) chinonyorwa negadziriro yokunyoresa.[5]

Chiito Chokudzika Mugungwa Chomuenzaniso, 2016

Kukurukura magadzirirwo echinjo dzinodzorwa, NITI Aayog akakarakadza Model Land Lutting Act muna 2016. Ichi chiito chinobvumira varimi kuroja nyika vasingatyi kurasikirwa nohuni, nepo vachigovera zvakachengeteka kuvagari. Inobvumira marendi okutaura (nechinyorwa chakanyorwa), rendi ine mufungo, uye dziviriro pakudzingirwa panguva yokurovha. Kubvira muna 2023, nyika shomanene bedzi dzakafanana naUttar Pradesh naUtakhand dzakagamuchira shanduro dzomuenzaniso uyu. Chinetso chepamutemo ndecho kudzikamisa kuchinjika kwapamuri wepamba nechengeteko yedare yakaoma kupiwa basa rakasimba zvikuru rakakomba mukati menhambo yokurekidzwa.

Kupindura Kwokutonga uye Kutonga Kwedare Gurusa

Dare rapamusoro rapa rutongeso runoverengeka runokosha runotapura chinjo dzenyika mumakore gumi apfuura. Mu State of Keralah v. K. S. Abishilash [202], Dare rakasimbisa kuti chinjo dzenyika igadziriro inopfuurira uye kuti hurumende dzinofanira kuvandudza mitemo yadzo mutsinhirano nezvinangwa zvebumbiro remitemo. Munongedzero yeIntecommenter yeC (Kubudis) v. Ananda Rulbal Development Trust[[ (20) , Dare rinoita nezvikamu zvenyika zvinobetsera nokuregwa munyika inopa mari inobvumira nokusunungura kwavo miganhuro yejiro. Chimwe chiitiko chinokosha, [FLT:]. [B.GProngetsssss of an productive translated transtives) haitswo inogona kugadziriswa pamutemo apo zvinenge zvakaedza kushandura zviri pamutemo.

Kugadziridzwa kweBumbiro reMitemo Nepurogiramu Yechikamu Chishoma

Dare reChiitiko, iro rinodzivirira mitemo pakuhwirudzura, rave riri munondo wakakurirwa namativi maviri. Nepo rakabvumira mitemo inomutsa gakava kuti irambe iripo panzvimbo yapakuvamba, Dare Rapamusorosarudzo mu .R.Coelho v. Hurumende yeTamil Nadu [2007] (2007) yaidavira kuti mitemo yakaiswa muNinth Sgellagey pashure pa 1973 ichiri inodzokororwa mu “chirongwa chebhurungwe chenyika. Izvo zvakaita kuti mitemo yenyika ichangobva kuchinjwa ive isingatapukuriki zvinetso zvebumbiro. Hurumende dzinoverengeka zvino dziri kudzokorodza nyika kuvimbisa maruramiro okuvandudza maruramiro, zvikurukuru inodzose inowirirana neyakarurama kuudzo pasi peChikamu 21.

mhedziso

Mativi apamutemo echinjo dzenyika muIndia akaoma zvikuru uye anoramba achibatanidza. Gadziriro yemitemo, yakabatanidzwa nomutemo wakananga wehurumende, yakaita chirongwa chemitemo yakarongwa icho chinovavarira kuwana ruramisiro yenzanga asi kazhinji kazhinji inokundikana nemhaka yokuita nzvimbo, uye kusadzorwa. Nhaka yenhau yezvisarudzo zvechinjo neshatiso dzemitemo ichiri kuisa tariro refu, uye denho dzapamutemo dzakawanda, uye zvinyorwa zvapamutemo, zvinyorwa zvapamutemo zvinosimudzira nhevedzano, kusaruranami, uye kunonoka kwedare kupera. Nhanho dzazvinopfuuyiswa zvazvinopfuuyiswa seDILRMP, Rovet Land Act Act, uye chinjo dzemitemo dzinopa tariro nokuda kwegadziriro yapamutemo yapamutemo. Zvisinei, kuchengetwa kwemitemo yemitemo inona kunokosha nokuda kwokubudirira nokubudirira kwenzanga yenzanga yenzanga neyamunzanga. Kubudirira kusimudzira kupfurikidza nokudzorwa kwenzira yemitemo yemitemo yenzanga dzose dzinodzorwa nemitemo yapamutemo kupfurikidza nemitemo yavose yenzanga yenzanga.