Kudavira Mashura Kunomborevei?

Chiratidzo chirevo cherondedzero yebumbiro remitemo iyo inotsvaka kupa chiremera chinosunga mashoko eBumbiro remitemo sezvainzwisiswa pakuvamba naavo vakanyoresa ndokuasimbisa. Chisakiso chikuru ndechokuti revo yorugwaro rwebumbiro remitemo inogadzwa panguva yokugadza uye haifaniri kuchinja kubviswa kwetsika. Vatsigiri, kubatanidza Mutongi Antonin Scalia naMutongi wazvino uno Clarence Thomas, vanopikisa kuti chitendero chapakuvamba chinogovera chisarudzo chakajeka, chakatsiga, uye chinoitwa nemitemo yepamutemo nokuda kwokuita chisarudzo chedare, chinodzivisa vatongi kuti vasapinda mumutemo wavo vamene mumutemo wemitemo.

Vatsoropodzi vanoomerera kuti uzivi hwapakuvamba hunogona kuva hwakaoma zvikuru, kuvhara nzwisiso dzechinyakare nefambiro mberi yenzanga. Vanocherekedza kuti vagadziri vamene havana kubvumirana panhau dzakawanda uye kuti kunzwisisa "revo yapakuvamba" kazhinji kazhinji kwakaoma kana kuti hakubviri. Uyezve, kushandiswa kwemavambo kuzvinetso zvazvino uno. Kwakadai sezvakavanzika zvemichina yazvino uno, ruzivo rwokubereka rwakakwirira, kana kuti roorano imwe cheteyo yezvevatano iyo ingawedzera nzwisiso yapakuvamba isinganzwisisiki. Idzi dzvinyiriro dzakakomba zvikurukuru pakurangarira maruramiro avakadzi, ane mugariro wapamutemo wakachinja zvikuru chifo chenguva inowanikwa.

Kodzero Dzavakadzi Nebumbiro Remitemo

Bumbiro reMitemo reU.S., serakatenderwa muna 1788, rakanga risina nongedzero yakajeka kukodzero dzavakadzi. Chimiro chapamutemo chavakadzi panguva yacho chaidzorwa zvikuru nedzidziso yapamutemo yavose yechivako, umo kuzivikanwa kwapamutemo kwomukadzi kwakasimbiswa nomurume wake. Vakadzi vaisagona kuvhota, kuva nenzvimbo yavose, kubatira pamatare, kana kuti panzvimbo yavo vamene muzita ravo vamene munyika dzakawanda. Mitemo yeMitemo yapakuvamba yakadai seMaropafadzo naImmunitis Claus (Article IV) uye vimbiso yechimiro chehurumende (Article IV, chikamu 4) haina kunzwisiswa kudzivirira kubatanidzwa kwavakadzi muupenyu hwavo.

Pakanga pari bedzi pashure peHondo yavagari vemo uye kudzorwa kwe Finetenth Amendment (1868) apo Bumbiro reMitemo rakavamba kupa hwaro hwemavara echirume nevarume. Chidzivisiro chaManic Claus chinopa kuti hapana hurumende icha "kudzorwa kumunhu upi noupi mukati mosimba rayo dziviriro yakaenzana yemitemo. Kunyange zvazvo kudzivirira kwakarongwa kwapakuvamba kwakarongwa kudzivirira maruramiro avanhu vachangobva kusunungurwa veAfrica, shoko rokuti "person" i "bhin-neutral. Mupfuudzi unotevera, Dare guru rinokweva nedziviriro yakaenzana na Clauslaus kuti ipedze mitemo inosarura pahwaro yevatano, na [FLD][2][5]

, inova yakagovera zvakajeka murairo wakajeka nokuda kwouenzani hwechirume, (1920) kuvakadzi kuti vave nekodzero yokuvhota, asi haina kutaura zvimiro zvakafara zvokusaenzana kwemitemo. Hurumende yekodzero dzemunhu oga [, iyo ingadai yakagovera murairo wakajeka wetsika wehuhuhuhuhuhuhure, wakakarakadzwa muna 1972 asi pakupedzisira wakakundikana kuwana kusimbiswa nenhamba inodikanwa. Uku kundikano yakasiya dziviriro yeSangano reChikamiriyoni yedziviriro yavakadzi semotokari yemitemo yekodzero dzavakadzi, ichiita mutoo wedudziro wapakuvamba kana kuti muteyi wemitemo.

Kure uye Kodzero Dzevanhu: Kusawirirana uye Kusavapo

Maharaundi Ezvisaririra uye Echi 18-Mutsigiri

Mumutoo worumano wekuvamba, Bumbiro reMitemo rinodudzirwa mukuwirirana nerevo yapakuvamba yavanhu vose yamashoko aro. Panguva yokuwanikwa, vakadzi vairangarirwa kuva vaduku napamutemo kuvarume mumativi akawanda. Vagadziri havana kurangarira vakadzi savatori rutivi vakaenzana munzanga yezvamatongerwe enyika; zvirokwazvo, kushandiswa kwa "ye" na"hi" muBumbiro remitemo rapakuvamba rakaratidzira fungidziro yokuti upenyu hwavose hwakanga huri hwavanhurume bedzi. Nokuda kwavanamavambo, iyi nhau dzenhau: revo yeBumbiro remitemo haisati ichingowedzera nemhaka yokuti mipimo yenzanga inochinja.

Vamwe vatangi, kufanana naJustice Scalia, vakataura kuti Masangano Echikamu Chinodzivirira Classia akanga asina kunzwisiswa pakuvamba kurambidza zvimiro zvizhinjisa zverusaruraganda. Mumurangariro wake, Claus akanga achiitira hanya zvikurukuru norusaruro rwedzinza pavarume vechiBlack, uye kutambanudzo ipi neipi kuvakadzi yaida kugadziriswa kwebumbiro remitemo remitemo (hwusingarevi kutsanangurazve kwedare). Ichi chimiro chinoreva kuti mitemo inobata vakadzi nenzira yakasiana nevarume inopesana nemitemo kunze kwokuva nomufungo chose chose, mupimo waizobvumidza mizhinji yemitemo yorusaruramisi ganda iyo yakanga inozivikanwa pamberi pema 1970.

Kutanga Kwakafara Nerevo ye "Personal"

Hadzisi nyanzvi dzose dzinotanga dzinogamuchira murangariro wakatetepa wakadaro. Dzimwe nyanzvi, dzakadai se John O. McGinnis uye Michael B. Rapppaport[, dzinotsigira "mitoo yapakuvamba yechitendero," inotarira kumitemo inodudzira iyo vagadziri vamene vaizova vashandisa. Muiyi nzira, shoko rokuti "person" muInday Standard Version rine revo yakagadzwa inobatanidza vanhu vose, pasinei zvapo nevatano. Kunzwisisa kwapakuvamba kwe "kudzivirira" kungavawo kwakakura kupfuura ruramisiro Sclatia. Somuenzaniso, magadziro eGelematembhineti akaziva kuti mitemo ichangobva kuputsa mitemo inopesana, inoshorwa nokupesana nemitemo yakakurumbira.

Kupfuurirazve, kurangarira kwapakuvamba kunogona kushandiswa kunhau ye mativi anotsamira pateshi yetengi kupfurikidza nokunangidzira ngwariro parevo yakajeka yorugwaro. Mutevedzeri wePemo Expact Claus anodzivisa kuramba "dziviriro yakaenzana yemitemo." kana mutemo uchiiswa pahwaro hwevatano, muvambi wemavambo angabvunza kana revo yapakuvamba ichigona kurangarirwa kuva pakati perevo yechiito chehurumende chinobvumirwa. Kunyange kana vagamuchiri vemitemo yakavakirwa pavatano yakawanda, vangazivawo kuti mamwe marusarusarudzo (g., aya akavakirwa padzinza) anofungiraniswa nenzira inoshamisa. Kana revo yapakuvamba ichigona kuyera vatano yazvino unoteverwa kupfurikidza nokusarurwa kwetsika.

Nhau Dzakajeka Nokurangarira Kwoutana

[ .Red v. (1971) uye Mavambo eChimiro chazvino uno cheMatambudziko

Mu yakared v. Reed, Dare rapamusoro rakarova mutemo weIdaho uyo wakapa varume chisarudzo chakazvimirira pavakadzi mukutarisira nzvimbo. Kunyora nokuda kweDare rinowirirana, Mutongi Mukuru Warren Burger akarangarira kuti mutemo wakaputsa dziviriro yaMosalcial Claus nemhaka yokuti wakanga uri "mutambo" uye usina kuwirirana zvikuru nefariro ipi neipi yehurumende. Dare harina kugamuchira kunzvera kwakakomba kana kuti muedzo upi noupi chaiwo nokuda kwevatano; rakangoshandisa bedzi hwaro hwakafanira ndokuwana kuva husina mufungo. Vadudziri vapakuvamba vanogona kugamuchira uyu muuyo nokuda kwezvikonzero zvakanaka, uye revo yapakuvamba ye "sciod" sezvinobvira inodzivisa kuganhuridzwa chose chose. Zvisinei, [FFF]

Craig v. Boren[[FLT] [1] [776] naInternadiate Scrutiny

Mu Craig v. Boren, Dare rakatanga nzvero yapakati nokuda kwezvimiro zvakavakirwa pavatano, ichida kuti vabatire "zvinangwa zvehurumende zvinokosha" uye kuva "zvinowirirana" nevavariro idzodzo. Iyi muedzo unoraira zvikuru kupfuura hwaro hunonzwisisika asi husingana kunyanyonzverwa zvikuru. Mutongi William Brennan, kunyora nokuda kworuzhinji, haana kuparira chisarudzo mumurangariro wapakuvamba; panzvimbo pezvo, akatsamira pabvumirano inokura mukurwisana nechengerwo rwevatano nerangariro yeDare inowirirana nenzwisiso yedziviriro yakaenzana.

Vatsoropodzi vemavambo vanotaura kuti Craig yakanga iri dare rakaitwa risina hwaro hwerevo yapakuvamba ye 144th Amendment. Justice Rehnquist yakaramba, inoramba kuti mafomu ePramendement akanga asingadi kuisa nzvero dzakawedzerwa pamipimo yevatano. Kana chiShona chapakuvamba chakashandiswa chaizvoizvo, mitemo yakawanda yakavakirwa pavatano yakavakirwa paidzoseidzo dzakati kuti nokuda kwavarume kana kuti kuganhurira ganhuriro dzavakadzi kuva pamutemo, kunyange kana vachioneka kuva vasina kururama nhasi. Uku kuoma kwemavambo kunoenzanisira mamiriro ezvinhu okubereka apakuvamba mukuva akaenzana kwazvino unowirirana.

United States v. Virginia (1996) uye VMI Case

Chisarudzo chakatanhamara zvikurusa chemisi ichangobva kupfuura iyi zvikurusa chehuenti ndeichi .[FLT] United States v. Virginia , umo Dare rairangarira kuti Virginia Military Institute yevarume bedzi vaibvuma mutemo wokudzorwa kwaClaus. Mutongi Ruth Bader Ginsburg, anonyora nokuda kwevoruzhinji, aishandisa shanduro yokuyera pakati yaida kururamisa kwokunyengetetedza vatano nokuda kwokusarurana. Dare rakaramba zvibvumikiso zveVirginia izvo dzidzo yevatano imwe yakapa mhindu yevatano. Mutezo unoshandura VMI, kurovedza kworuzhinji.

Uzivi hwekare hunopa tsigiro shomanene nokuda kwomuuyo mu VMI. Panguva yeFirimendement ye 144th Reformation, zvikoro zvehondo zvinobhadharwa pachena zvakanga zvazarukira vanhu bedzi, uye hapana aifunga kuti Mutongi wekare weProtection Claus aidikanwa neimwe nzira. Mutongi wekare angave akatsigira muitiro weVMI, anonongedzera kunzwisiso yapakuvamba yokuti misiyano yevatano yakavakirwa padzidzo yakanga ichibvumirwa. Bva Dare rakatonga 7-1 kuti misiyano yakadaro zvino haiwiriraniswi. Chisarudzo chinoratidzira mutoo mupenyu webumbiro remitemo uyo unochinjika kutsika inochinja muteo wetsika.

Zvinetso Zvokutanga Zvazvino Uno: Revo Yo "Yechienzi" yeFiji Yechigumi Nezvina

Dzimwe nyanzvi dzepakutanga dzinotaura kuti revo yokutanga ye14th Amendment inotsigira chaizvoizvo kudzivirira kwakasimba nokuda kwokuenzana kwevarume nevakadzi kupfuura zvinonzi. Somuenzaniso, Professite Steven G. Calabrasi yakapikisa kuti revo yavanhu vose ye "kudzivirira kana kuti kudzivirira" paIndation" muDramende yeMitemo ye145" inobatanidza kodzero dzemitemo dzakasiyana- siyana idzo vakadzi vaidavira, dzakadai sekodzero yokuva nezvinhu zvavo uye kubvumirana. Papfungwa iyi, Maropafadzo kana kuti Immatunity Classian Claus /hasity imotokari yakafanira yokudzivirira vakadzi. Zvisinei, Dare gurusase zvaramba zvikuru nzira iyi, inochengeta kudzivirirwa kwakaenzana, kudzivirira.

Mumwe mutsetse wezvibvumikiso zvepakuvamba unonangidzira ngwariro parevo yemavambo ye "dziviriro yakaenzana" imene. Vanyori vakaratidza kuti vagadziri veI48 Demendment vakapesvedzerwa neChibvumirano chekodzero dzeChivil kuenda 1866, icho chinovimbisa vanhu vose kodzero imwe cheteyo yokuita zvibvumirano uye kugara nhaka zvinhu sevagari vemo vachena. Kubatanidza mutauro unorambidza "mutemo upi noupi kana kuti tsika" ungagona kubvisa kodzero idzi, Kugadziridza kungava kwakaitirwa kubvisa kusarura kwetsika kwechikwata chipi nechipi, kubatanidza vakadzi. Nepo kutsanangura uku kuchiitirwa gakava, kunokarakadza kuti kudiwa kuti kuve kwapakuvamba hakufaniri kuva noutsinye kukodzero dzevakadzi.

Mapokani Azvino Uno Pakati Penyanzvi

Ko Kureruka Kunodzivisa Nenzira isingadzivisiki Kodzero Dzavakadzi Here?

Nyanzvi dzezvepamutemo dzakawanda dzinotaura kuti mavambo anorwisana zvikuru nokuenzana kwechirume. Catharine MacKinnon uye [[FLT] Marthal Nussbaum][ anopikisa kuti Bumbiro remitemo raibatanidza varume vechichena raibatanidza zvakajeka vakadzi namamwe mapoka. Kuedza kuenzana nemunhukadzi kubva murugwaro rwakadaro, ivo vanoti, itsananguro isingagoni kutongobvisa zvizere kuiswa mumitemo. Nokuti, mutengi mupenyu wemitemo bedzi ndiye anoshanda mutevedzero mutsva wemitemo.

Dzimwe nyanzvi dzinofunga zvakajeka zvikuru. Kimberlé Crenshaw dzakataura kuti kunzvera kwepamhene kunoratidza kuti kuvamba kunogona sei zvose kudzivirira nokukuvadza vakadzi, zvichitsamira pamashoko akapoteredza. Somuenzaniso, kuvamba kungashandiswa kumisa mapurogiramu akagadzirirwa kupedza rusaruro rwenhau pavakadzi, pavhu rakanzwisiswa pakuvamba kurambidza rudzi nohukuru. Panguva imwe cheteyo, kuvamba kwaigona kuganhurira simba raMasangano okupfuudza mitemo yakafanana neRwisano Rukadzi, iyo yakarovanyiwa mu [FLT:] United States.[FF]

Kutanga Kunogona Kuchinja Zvinetso Zvenyaya Dzemadzinza Akasiyana - siyana Here?

Vamwe vatangi vanowirirana vanokarakadza nzira ye "kududzira mutemowo zvawo kwemitemo", iyo inobatanidza revo yapakuvamba nemupimo nechinjo yokuwedzera. Justice Stephen Breyer, kunyange zvazvo isiri mutangiri wemavambo, yakadana mutoo wetsika unorangarira miuyo yemiuyo. Panguva ino, vatangi vakafanana [[FLT:] Randyt[ inoramba kuti revo yapakuvamba yeBumbiro remitemo inodzivirira maruramiro ose omusikirwo, kubatanidza kodzero dzavakadzi dzokusununguka parusarura vatano mumativi ose. Kurava kwapamhiko kwechinote kunenge kunoda kuti matare ashatiseidze kuisa kuyera, muenzaniso wakasimba kupfuura kuyera. Iyi inosai inoparira kuti rugwaro rwenhau rwapamutemo ruve runowirirana necharwo rucharo.

Basa Retsono Nenyeredzi Zvinoparadza

Kunyange pakati pavatongi vapakuvamba, pane kurukurirano pamusoro pouremu hwenhau. Mutongi Scalia akanga achidisa kuchinja zvisarudzo asati adavira kuti zvakasarudzwa nenzira yakaipa, kubatanidza Roe v. Wade na[FLT]] Parents] pasvoms. Casey [kano] (kusimbisazve rudyi kukubvisa mimba). Mukupesana, Mutongi mukuru John Roberts asimbisa ukoshina kukurasa kwedecis, zvikurukuru nokuda kwe "mifungo" iyo yakavimbwa namakumi amakore. Vatongi vazhinji vokutanga pamatare enyika yakaderera vakashandisa kunzvera kwapakati penhau dzakato kana kuti vafunga pachivanda. [FLT][FLT][4]

mhedziso

Kuvamba kunoramba kuri simba guru mukududzira kwebumbiro remitemo, uye ukama hwayo nekodzero dzavakadzi hwakaoma. Bumbiro remitemo rapakuvamba harina kudzivirira zvakajeka kuenzana kwavakadzi, asi mutauro wakafara we144th Amendment we "person" uye "dziviriro yakaenzana" inogona kutsanangurwa munzira dzinotsigira ruramisiro yevarume nevakadzi. Zviitiko zvinoratidzira kubva v. Reed ku [FLT] United States v. Virginia inoratidza kuti Dare rapamusoro rakagamuchira zvikurukuru mutengi mupenyu wetsikanotswokupesana pabonde, richishandisa kunzvera kuti vatsoropote kazhinji kazhinji sezvisina maturo.

Bva kuvamba hakusiri kwamavambo. Dzimwe nyanzvi navatongi vapakuvamba vanodavira kuti revo yapakuvamba yeBumbiro remitemo, inonzwisiswa zvakafanira, inorambidza zvimiro zvizhinjisa zverusarurano uye kunyange kutoda mupimo wakaoma wehwirudzuro. Vamwe vanoomerera kuti nzwisiso yapakuvamba inobvumidza mabasa egamuchidzanwa akavakirwa pavatano kutoti yarambwa zvakananga nokuchinja. Nhau inopfuurira inosimbisa kuti kududzirwa kwemitemo yemitemo hakungori kushandisirwa kwounyanzvi chete. Kana kuwirirana kwemitemo yetemo yetemo yeserokrame kunofanira kuva kwakati, uye basa redare remitemo rinongopfuurira kushandura. Sezvo kutenderwa kwavakadzi kupfuurira kupfuurira kupfurikidza nomutemo kunoramba kuchiita sechinjo, mutemo, uye kuchinja kwenzanga, mubvunzo kuti kuradziri kuchava chinhu chikuru.

Nokuda kwokuravazve, ona Cornell Information yedziviriro yakaenzana[, kurukurirano yeAmerican Bar Association yetemu yehuenno nedudziro yebumbiro remitemo yemunhu ne, uye [[FLT] Dare reSupreme] mu United States v. Virginia]