Table of Contents

Kutanga: Kuchinja Kukuru Kwekodzero Dzebumbiro Remitemo

United States Constitution, yakatenderwa muna 1788, yakatanga gadziriro yokutonga asi yakasiya yakawanda yenheyo dzayo dzakazaruka kududzira. Mumazana amakore, Dare Rapamusorosoro rakashanda semupi wezvisarudzo wokupedzisira werevo yebumbiro remitemo, kupa zvisarudzo zvakachinjazve nzanga yeAmerica. Nhau dzemapepa dzakarondedzera kuenzana kwesimba pakati pamapazu ehurumende, kuwedzera rusununguko rwomunhu, uye kururamisa kusaruramisira kwakapinzwa mumutemo. Zvisakarurama izvi hazvina kubuda muchinhu chose chose; zvakapindura kumasangano emagariro, zvinetso ezvematongerwe enyika, uye kunzwisisa nhau idzi kunokosha nokuda kwokunzwisisa kuti kodzero dzemitemo dzehurumende hadzivi dzakatevedzerwa asi dzinoedzwa nguva dzose uye kupfurikidza nokuongororazve dare.

Marbury v. Madison (1803): Bedrock of Judicial Review

Mavambo Nemashoko Akapoteredza

Mumaawa ouduku okutarisira kwaPurezidhendi John Adams, chikaro chokutonga chakaitwa, kubatanidza William Marbury seruramisiro yorugare. Apo Munyori mutsva weHurumende, James Madison, akaramba kupa basa raMarbury, Marbury akakumbira Dare guru nokuda kwechimurenga chemandamus. Mhaka yacho yakagombedzera Mutongi Mukuru John Marshall kutungamirira mhoteredzo inopomerwa mhaka yezvamatongerwe enyika pakati pavaFederation naDhemocratic Republicans.

Kurangarira Kwapamutemo uye Muuyo

Marshall airangarira kuti akanga ari mutezo mukuru. Iye akazivisa kuti Marbury akanga ane maruramiro kudare rake asi kuti Dare Rapamusorosaisagona kupa hwirudzuro nemhaka yokuti Chikamu 13 cheChiito chaJudiary cha 1789, icho chakanzi chinopa Dare iroro simba, chakanga chiri chisati chiri chibvumirano. Kwenguva yokutanga, Dare Rapamusoro rakasimbisa simba re rehwidicalic [[[[FLT:]]] [] chirevo kuputsa mitemo inorwisana neBumbiro remitemo. Chisarudzo chakadzivisa rwisano chakananga nebazu repamusoro apo panguva imwe chete chakabatana nebasa re [FUR.]

Kutapura Kodzero Dzebumbiro reMitemo

Marbury v. Madison akatanga Dare guru somuturikiri wokupedzisira weBumbiro reMitemo. Pasina muenzaniso uyu, mitemo inoteverwa seBrown v. Board of Education neObergefell v. Hodges yaizoshaiwa chiremera chehwaro kushayisa simba rehurumende nemitemo yehurumende. Mhaka yacho inoramba iri musimboti womutemo weAmerica wemitemo, ichivimbisa kuti zviito zvemitemo nechiremera zvinoramba zviri pasi pemiganhuro yemitemo. Nokuda kwokuravazve, [FLT: 0] ona kupfupikisa kwaMarbury brium v. Madison[FLT]

Brown v. Board of Education (1954): Kushatisa “Kuyera Asi Kwakaenzana”

Mavambo Nemashoko Akapoteredza

Makumi amakore pashure pe Plaby v. Ferguson chisarudzo (1896) chakabvumira kusarurana kwedzinza mu “dzidziso yakapesana yakaenzana”, mhuri dzeAfrica dzakapfuurira kutambura pasi pezvikoro zvakaderera, nzvimbo dzavose, uye zvokufambisa. Mukutanga kwa1950, NACPS Legin Defense Fund, yakatungamirirwa naThur Malllashall, yakaronga denho yakabatanidzwa kuparapatidza muzvikoro zvavose. Mhaka yacho yakabatanidza utsotsi hushanu hwakaparadzana, nomwanasikana waOriver Brown Linda achinyimwa kugamuchirwa kuchikoro chevarungu muTopeka, Kansa.

Kurangarira Kwapamutemo uye Muuyo

Mutongi mukuru Earl Warren akapa murangariro unowirirana uyo wakatendeuka Plasy. Dare raidavira kuti nzvimbo dzedzidzo dzinosarudzwa dzakanga dzisina kuenzana nenzira yomuzvarirwo, kuchinyima vana vashomanene mikana yedzidzo yakaenzana kunyange apo zvivako zvokunyama nezvimwe zvinhu zvinooneka zvakanga zvakaenzana. Kutonga kwakatsamira pa dziviriro yeEqual Clause [ yeMitemo yeMitemo ye 1450 yeFind Amend Reformment uye yadudzwa nefundo dzendangariro dzinoratidzira miuyo inokuvadza yavana veAfrica.

Kutapura Kodzero Dzebumbiro reMitemo

Brown v. Board of Education haina kukurumidza kugumisa kubviswa kwechikoro ne(icho chakatora makore okuchengetwa kwekodzero dzehurumende uye kumwe kutonga kwehurumende) asi yakagovera nheyo yapamutemo nokuda kwesangano rekodzero dzavagari vemo. Yakaratidzira kuti dare raisazoshivirirazve sarura dzinza renyika ndokugadzirira nzira yeChirevo cheChirevo chaMadoko a1964 neVoting Rights Act ye 1965. Nokuda kwoudzamende, shanyira [[FLT: 0] Raibhurari yeCongress Brown v. Board regist[FL:1]

Gideon (1963): Kodzero yeZano

Mavambo Nemashoko Akapoteredza

Clarence Earl Gideon akanga ari murombo aiparadzirwa achipomerwa kuputsa chitima muFlorida. Asingakwanisi kuwana mumiririri wegweta, akakumbira dare kugadza mumwe. Hurumende yakaramba chikumbiro chake, uye Gidheoni akamanikidzwa kuzvimirira amene; akawanirwa mhaka ndokutongerwa makore mashanu mutorongo. Muchitokisi chake, Gidheoni akaisa chikumbiro kuDare Rapamusoro, akataura kuti [[FLT:] SSIxmend [ Akarurama okupa zano rakanga ratyorwa. Dare rakabvuma kunzwa mhaka yake.

Kurangarira Kwapamutemo uye Muuyo

Muchisarudzo chakabatana, Dare Gurusa raitonga pakuvamba rakabata Brady v. Brady (42), iro rakanga rakaganhurira maruramiro okugadzwa ezano kumigariro chaiyo. Mutongi Hugo Black akanyora kuti magweta mudare ramatsotsi zvinodikanwa, kwete zvoumbo, uye kuti vimbiso yeT6th Amendment yezano inoshanda kumitemo kupfurikidza ne BATY Procession Classiace [[ yeGeneticledge. Dare rairangarira kuti munhu upi noupi anoendeswa mudare ari muurombo zvikuru haagoni kuvimbisa muedzo wakarurama kutongerwe pasina zano.

Kutapura Kodzero Dzebumbiro reMitemo

Gideon kana kuti Wainwright akachinja gadziriro youtsotsi yeruramisiro. United States yaidikanwa kutanga gadziriro dzavose dzokudzivirira kuti igovere pamutemo vakwirirwi vanopomerwa. Uku kutonga kwakasimbisa nheyo yokuti gadziriro yokutonga inotsamira pakuenzana kwezvombo(---sina gweta, kurwa kwacho hakuna kururama zvikuru. Kunoramba kuri muganhu wetsika dzoutsotsi uye kwanongedzerwa mumhaka dzakawanda dzinotevera.

Miranda muArizona (1966): Kudzivirira Kuzvidzivisa Pachako

Mavambo Nemashoko Akapoteredza

Ernesto Miranda akasungwa muPhoenix, Arizona, papomero dzokuba nokuba nokuba nokuba chibharo. Pashure pamaawa maviri ebvunzurudzo yamapurisa, akasaina kureurura kwaishandiswa kumusunga. Haana kumboudzwa kodzero yake yokuramba akanyarara kana kuti kodzero yake kumumiririri. Magweta aMiranda akapikisa kuti kureurura kwacho kwakamanikidzwa nokuti kwakawanikwa pasina nyevero idzi, kuchiputsa Fifth Amendment [ ropafadzo yokuzvinyima.

Kurangarira Kwapamutemo uye Muuyo

Murangariro mukuru weMutongi Warren wakavamba dziviriro itsva: mapurisa anofanira kuzivisa maruramiro awo pamberi pokubvunzurudzwa kwekodzero. Zvino “Maranda ” inobatanidza maruramiro okuramba wakanyarara, kuti chinhu chipi nechipi chakataurwa chinogona kushandiswa mukurwisana newe mudare, maruramiro kugweta, uye kuti gweta richagadzwa kana usingagoni kubhadhara. Dare rakatonga kuti kureurura kupi nokupi kunowanwa pasina idzi nyevero kusingabvumiki pakutongwa.

Kutapura Kodzero Dzebumbiro reMitemo

Miranda kana kuti Arizona akachinja nomutoo unoshamisa miitiro yamapurisa munyika yose. Nepo ichitsoropodzwa navamwe sekuchengetwa kwomutemo kunoisa maoko, chisarudzo chakasimbisa kuwanda kwokureurura nenheyo yokuti hurumende inofanira kuremekedza maruramiro avanhu kunyange mukurondwa kweruramisiro. Miranda anoramba ari musimboti wezvinoitika zvoutsotsi zveterevhizheni asi muuyo wayo chaiwoiwo mukuru: inogovera mupimo wakajeka, unomanikidzirwa nokuda kwokudzivirira kudzvinyirirwa kwoudzo.

Rudo Virginia (1967): Kuderedza Mitemo Inorwisana neMisikirini

Mavambo Nemashoko Akapoteredza

Richard Loving, murume muchena, uye Mildred Jeter, mukadzi Mutema, vakaroorwa muWashington, D.C., muna 1958. Pavakadzokera kumusha wavo weVirginia, vakapomerwa kuputsa mutemo weRoudial Perfeed Act weRouncity wehurumende, uyo wakarambidza roorano yemarudzi akasiyana - siyana. Vakateterera vane mhaka, vakatongerwa kutorongo gore rimwe (vakaiswa pamugariro wavakasiya hurumende), uye vakatamira kuD.C. Vakatsunga kudzokera kumusha, vaRwiyo vakadenha mutemo nebetsero yeACLUU.

Kurangarira Kwapamutemo uye Muuyo

Mutongi mukuru Warren zvakare akanyora murangariro unobvumirana. Dare rakaramba kuti mutemo waVirginia waiputsa zvose zviri zviviri Dziviriro yaClause uye DATES Procession Claus [ yeIndation ye 145. Dare rakaramba kutaura kwokuti mutemo wakanga usiri mutemo nemhaka yokuti waishanda zvakaenzana kumadzinza ose ari maviri, kwete kuti wakarongerwa kuchengeta mitemo inorwisana nechenje. Chisarudzo chakadzika pasi paapo pamabhuku 16 icho chakanga chichiripo pamabhuku.

Kutapura Kodzero Dzebumbiro reMitemo

Rudo Virginia yakasimbisa kuti roorano ikodzero inokosha uye kuti nhevedzano yedzinza inodzorwa nenzvero yokunzvera kukurusa. Yakabvisa mhinganidzo dzakasimudzirwa nehurumende kudzinza rimwe ndokugadza muenzaniso unokosha nokuda kwenhau dzapashure dzinobatanidza maruramiro okuroora, kubatanidza bergefell v. Hodges (2015). Mhaka inoramba iri chiratidzo chine simba chedziviriro yeBumbiro remitemo yekodzero yomunhu oga nerevo.

United States v. Nixon (1974): Hapana Munhu Ari Kumusoro kwoMutemo

Mavambo Nemashoko Akapoteredza

Mukati mechinonyadzisa cheWatergate, muchuchisi chaiye akarekodhwa tepi nezvinyorwa zvekurukurirano pakati paPurezidhendi Richard Nixon neyamubetsera. Nixon akataura ropafadzo yokuuraya [ uye akaramba kuwirirana, achiramba kuti matepi acho akadzivirirwa pazivikanwe. Mhaka yacho yakapa rwisano yakananga yemitemo pakati pekutaura kwapurezidhendi kwechakavanzika nejajiiary nokuda kwekushaiwa ufakazi mukunzvera kweutsotsi.

Kurangarira Kwapamutemo uye Muuyo

Mutongi mukuru Warren Burger, mugadziri weNixon, akapa murangariro unobvumirana. Dare rakabvuma ropafadzo yakakodzera yekurukurirano yapurezidhendi asi rakati haingagoni kushandiswa kudzivirira ufakazi mukukwirira mhaka. Kudikanwa kwoufakazi mukutongwa kwakarurama kwakakurira fariro yavose mukuvanza. Dare rakaraira Nixon kushandura matepi, ayo akazivisa kubatanidzwa kwake mubutiro. Kutarisana nebutiro, Nixon arega chinguvana pashure porutongeso.

Kutapura Kodzero Dzebumbiro reMitemo

United States v. Nixon yakasimbisa nheyo huru yokuti Purezidhendi haana kupfuura mutemo. Yakasimbisa kuti vatongi vane chiremera chokuda bazi guru kubudisa ufakazi pasi pomupurisa. Nhau yacho yakaratidzawo muenzaniso wegakava rapashure pamusoro peropafadzo yechiremera, kubatanidza mukati mevatarisiri veClinton neTrump. Inoramba iri nzvero ine simba pamusoro pesimba rapurezidhendi.

Kuzvimirira uye Kubereka Autonomy

Mavambo Nemashoko Akapoteredza

Norma McCorvey, pasi pezita rokunyepera rokuti “Jane Roe,” akadenha mutemo weTexas wokuti kubvisa pamuviri kwakaparirwa noutsotsi kunze kwokuponesa upenyu hwomukadzi. Mhaka yacho yakanga iri rutivi rwenzira huru nevanotsigira kodzero dzokubereka kuti matare azive kodzero yebumbiro remitemo yokubvisa pamuviri. Panguva iyoyo, hurumende dzakawanda dzakanga dzine mitemo inorambidza kubvisa pamuviri, uye vakadzi vaiwanzotsvaka miitiro isiri yapamutemo uye isina kukotsekana.

Kurangarira Kwapamutemo uye Muuyo

Murangariro waHarry Blackmun waidavira kuti maruramiro okuvanzika , unorehwa neGute Ecode Exprocession ye 144th Amendment, wakabatanidza chisarudzo chomukadzi chokugumisa pamuviri pake. Dare rakatanga chirongwa chakareruka: mukati momuchekedzeri wokutanga, hurumende haigoni kudzora kubvisa mimba; mukati meyechipiri, yaigona kudzora kudzivirira utano hwomukadzi; mukati meyechitatu, pashure pokuna, ingagona kudzivisa kubvisa mimba kunze kwokuponesa upenyu hwomukadzi kana kuti utano.

Kutapura Kodzero Dzebumbiro reMitemo

Roe Wade akava chimwe chezvisarudzo zvenharo zvikurusa munhau yeAmerica. Yakanyoresa kubvisa pamuviri munyika yose ndokumutsa hondo dzinopfuurira dzezvamatongerwe enyika nemitemo pamusoro pamaruramiro okubereka. Nepo chisarudzo chacho chakachinjwa na Dobts v. Jackson Women’s Health Organization[ [2022], kuchidzorera nhau yacho kunyika, Roe anotsungirira sekuzivikanwa kwakatanhamara kwemitemo yakavanzika. Mhaka yakateverawo inodzivirira zvisarudzo zvomunhu oga, zvakadai sekodzero yokushandisa kudzivisa kubereka uye maruramiro kuukama hwevatano.

Obergefell v. Hodges (2015): Kuenzana kweroorano nokuda kwevakaroorana veSagaro-Svudi

Mavambo Nemashoko Akapoteredza

James Obergefell naJohn Arthur vakanga vave vari pamwe chete kwamakore anopfuura 20 apo Arthur akava anorwara zvikuru. Vakafamba vachibva Ohio vachienda Maryland, uko roorano youtevedzani yakanga iri yapamutemo, kuti varoore. Apo Arthur akafa, Ohio akaramba kuronga Obergefell somukwanyina akasara parugwaro rworufu. Obergefell sued, uye mhaka yake yakasimbiswa nezvimwe migariro inodenha paroorano imwe cheteyo yevatano nokuramba kuziva roorano dzakaregwa.

Kurangarira Kwapamutemo uye Muuyo

Murangariro woruzhinji waMutongi Anthony Kennedy (5-4) waidavira kuti maruramiro okuroora ikodzero huru inovimbiswa ne Duzero Procession Claus uye Equal Protection Claus [ yeGrandmentedment yeGrandment. Dare rakawana kuti roorano ndeyepakati peIndaneti imwe neimwe, kuzivikanwa, uye chiremera, uye kuti varoorani vorudzi rumwe chetevo vanofanira kufarikanya kuzivikanwa zvapamutemo savaroorani veex - extern. Chisarudzo chakarovanisa pasi pezvirambidzo zvimwe chetezvo zveroorano mumashoko ose 50.

Kutapura Kodzero Dzebumbiro reMitemo

Obergefell v. Hodges yakanga iri rukundo rwokushandura nokuda kweLGBTQ+ maruramiro. Yakagadzikisa kurukurirano yorudzi inokamuranisa ndokubvumira varoorani vorudzi rumwe chetevo vakaenzana kusvika kuroorano, pamwe chete nebetsero dzayo dzapamutemo nezivikanwo yenzanga. Mhaka yacho yakavakwawowo pamuenzaniso kubva Loving v. Virginia na United States v. Windsor (2013]), inoratidzira kuti dziviriro yapamutemo yezvisakiso zvomunhu oga uye nhevedzano inoitika kwenguva refu.

Zvimwe zviratidzo: Gideon, New York Times v. Sullivan, uye Heller

Wainwright (1963)

Sezvakakurukurwa, Gidheoni akatanga maruramiro okupa zano nokuda kwavakwirirwi. Chikamu chinokosha che SHICTP] uye inosimbisa kururama kwegadziriro yeruramisiro yetsotsi. Nokuda kwokutarisisa kukuru, ona Cornell Legal Information Institute ye [

New York Times v. Sullivan (1964)

Iyi nhau yakashandura mutemo worusununguko rwokutaura kupfurikidza nokuganhurira mano avakuru vakuru vehurumende okukwirira mhaka nokuda kwokushatisa. Dare rakataura kuti First Amendment [ inoda chibvumikiso che “shanje yechaidzo” yokuwana zvirango mumabasa avanhu akaunzwa nemhesano. Iyi chisarudzo chakagovera dziviriro yakasimba nokuda kwokutsoropodza vakuru vakuru vehurumende ndokuva nzvimbo yedivi rerusununguko rwemichina. Nokuda kwavamwe, inonongedzera ku Oyez] nhau yenhau [.]

Ruwa rwaColumbia v. Heller (2008)

Heller yakanga iri mhaka yokutanga yeDare Gurusa kuti ridudzire Amendment [ serinodzivirira maruramiro omunhu okuva nepfuti youzvidimbu mumusha. Chisarudzo chacho chakarova Washington, D.C. chirambidzo choruoko uye chakamutsa nharo dzinopfuurira pamusoro pemirairo yepfuti. Yakaziva kurudyi sechisina kuganhurirwa nechoruboshwe senzvimbo isina kuganhurirwa nokuda kweganhuriro dzine mufungo.

Mugumisiro: Bumbiro Romutemo Ripenyu

Zviitiko zvepanyika zvakadai sezviya zvakurukurwa pamusoro apa zvinoratidzira simba reBumbiro reMitemo rokukura nokuchinja. Kuvambira pakutanga hwirudzuro yedare mu Marbury v. Madison kuzivisa wirirano yeroorano mu [[FLT:] Obergefev v. Hodges, Dare Rapamusoro rasimbisa rasimbisazve kuti kodzero dzebumbiro remitemo hadzina kusimbiswa munguva. Chisarudzo chimwe nechimwe kurukurirano yenzanga, zvamatongerwe enyika, uye maererano netsika enguva yacho, uye mamiriro ezvinhu akawanda akaparira kurukurirano yakashata uye kunyange kudzokera shure. Kunyange zvakadaro kuzivisa kuti chinyorwa chokuvamba chinoramba chakakoshambidzika. Nokuda kwavadzidzi, uye vagarikidza, zviitiko zvakafanana zvinogovera mepu yerusununguko rwakaitwa nokunzwisisa kwakakwirira zvikuru.