Nhaka Isingaperi Yedziviriro Yakaenzana yaClaus

Mutevedzeri weWealth Device Claus, unowanwa muchikamu 1 cheMitemo yeMitemo yeMitemo yeMitemo ye 144, inomira seimwe yegadziriro dzine simba zvikurusa nedzinopesana mumutemo wemitemo yeAmerica. Inoraira kuti hakuna hurumende icha “kudzorwa nomunhu upi noupi musimba rayo kudzivirira kwakaenzana kwemitemo." Iyi murairo wakapfava asi wakakomba wakabatira sechiteshi chepamutemo chehondo chehondo kwenguva refu nokuda kwerwisano yerudzi rwokuenzana. Kubva mukubvisa Jim Crow kudzivirira kuenzana roorano, chitsauko chikuru chave chishandiso chekuyera Hurumende inodenha. Kunzwisisa mavambo ayo, mhindu yedzidziso, uye zvikumbiro zvazvinotoko zvinokosha nokuda kwomunhu upi noupi anotsvaka kunzwisisa kodzero yekodzero dzavagari veAmerica.

Mavambo Enhau: Kugadziridza Nokutanga Kwechipikirwa

Filivity Device Claus yakaberekwa kubva mumadota eHondo yevagari vemo. Ratisimudzwa muna 1868, Ivhu ra14th Amendment yakanga iri rutivi rweReformations dzakagadzirirwa kubatanidza vanhu vaichimbova varanda mutsika dzeAmerica. Chitsama chakanga chiri mhinduro yakananga kuBlack Codes(-) mitemo yaipfuudzwa nehurumende dzeMadokero kuti yaiganhurira zvikuru rusununguko rwevanhu veAfrica veAmerica, ichivamanikidzira kupinda muzvibvumirano zvebasa, ichiganhurira kodzero dzavo dzezvinhu, uye chichivarambidza kunyoreswa kumatare. Mabumbiro aya akajekesa kuti kubvisa uranda (kupfurikidza nePendeso yeChitatu) kwakanga kusingadhuri. pamutemo yaidiwa kuti pave nechokwadi chokuti vanhu vose, pasinei nedzinza, vaizowana kubatwa zvapamutemo savagari vechena.

Mukati meChinjon Era, Congress yakapfuudzawo zviito zvekodzero dzavagari vemo kuti itsigire izvi zvibvumikiso zvitsva zvebumbiro remitemo, asi Dare Rapamusorosoro pakutanga rakadudzira chitsama chomutsetse wacho zvishoma. Mu Cases-Imbar [1873]], Dare rakaganhurira kusvika kweMaropafadzo eGaramende re1448 kana kuti Immunonity Clausce, richimanikidzira kutsigira zvikurukuru dziviriro inowirirana neBasity Processs Claus. Iyi dare yakaisa chikamu chiduku nokuda kwerwendo rurefu uye rusina kufanira rwekududzirwa, rwaizoona chitsarudzo chose chiri chose chiri chose chichitengeswa uye chadzikinurwa.

Kunyengera [[[Nto: 0] . Ferguson[[FLT: 1]

Kwamakumi amakore pashure pekugadziridzwazve, Dare reChiteshi Rinoyera Classiana rakaremara zvikuru. [FLT] Pnety v. Ferguson (1996] , Dare Gurusa raitsigira mutemo waLouisiana waida kuti pave norudzi, kuvamba motokari dzenjanji dzenjanji dzemu yakashata, asi yakaenzana ne”. Dare rakarangarira kuti rusareva kuva muduku sezvivako zvakaenzana. Zvechokwadi, zvivako zvakagoverwa nokuda kwavaAmerica nguva dzose zvakanga zviri pasi penguva dzose. Chinoumba chinenge makore makumi matanhatu, chinogovera chinopiwa chifukidzwa chetsika chamapepa chedzinza redzinza renyika yose: Jimrow.

Plassity inomira sechiyeuchidzo chakajeka chokuti rugwaro rwebumbiro remitemo rwoga harugoni kuvimbisa kuenzana. Nhau dzinodudzira Dare zvikuru. Chitsama chamashoko chakanga chisiri chokuzviuraya; chaida vatongi vaidisa kupa icho chiri mukati mezana ramakore rezana ramakore rechiduku, apo nhimbe yakaitwa yapamutemo yakaitwa neNACP Legal Defense Fund /system yakadzikiswa nenheyo dzeProfektro.

Chiratidzo Chenhau Dzedare Rapamusoro Zvikurusa: Kubva Pakusiana Kuenda Kukuenzana

Nyaya yazvino uno yeCompatement Protection Claus inotaurwa zvakanakisisa kupfurikidza nezvinoitika zvechiratidzo izvo zvakarondedzera mativi acho. izvi zvisarudzo zvakachinja chitsama chamashoko kubva mubhii rakadokufa kuva chishandiso chikuru nokuda kworusaruro runodenha.

[[FOLT:0] Brown v. Board of Education (1954)

Muzvimwe chisarudzo cheDare rapamusoro zvikurusa chakakurumbira zvikurusa munhau yeAmerica, [FLT] v. Boka reDzidzo rakabvumirana kuti dzinza ravanhu muzvikoro zvavose rakanga risina kubatana. Chiratidzo chikuru cheSangano redzidzo yakanyorwa kuti “nzvimbo dzedzidzo dzakasiana - siana,” kuramba [[FLT:] P [FLT] chisariro . Dare rakawana kuti kuparira kuderera muvarasiki muAfrica uyo usingagoni kutongogadziriswa nepfuma inowirirana. [FLD:] BB] BBN [FFF:] haina kukurumidza kugovera pamutemo.[FLT]

Kukura Kwemakumbo Okuongorora

Pashure Brown, Dare rakatanga gadziriro yakatevedzana yokunzvera kutaura kwedziviriro kwakaenzana. Iyi gadziriro inosarudza kuti dare richasanonzvera sei mutemo unodenhwa wakavakirwa paruvara rwaunoita (um., dzinza, vatano, mirangariro yevatano).

  • Strict Scrutiny: Yakashandiswa kutsauranisa kwakavakirwa padzinza, mavambo orudzi, uye shambidziko. Mutemo unofanira kuva “wakagadzirirwa zvikuru” kubatira“ fariro yehurumende inowirirana.” Uyu ndiwo mupimo unoisvooma zvikuru; mitemo mishomanene zvikuru ichiripo.
  • Nhamba inopfuudzwa muScrutiny: Yakagoverwa kuwiriraniswa kwakavakirwa pabonde navarume navakadzi. Mutemo unofanira kuva “ne chokuita” ne“fariro yehurumende inokosha.] Iyi mwero yakatanga kuziviswa [FLT] Craig v. Boren[ [6] [6], , iyo yakadzosa mutemo weOklama unobvumira vakadzi kutenga 3.2% bhohohoko pazera ra18, asi ichida kuva varume kuva 21.
  • Rasal Basis Review: Mupimo wakarongwa nokuda kwezvimwe zvikamu zvizhinjisa (g., zera, pfuma, urema). Mutemo unoda bedzi kuva “ne chokuita” nefariro yehurumende inowirirana.” Ikoku kunowirirana zvikuru nemirairo yemitemo.

Dzimwe Mhaka Huru: Vatano, Roorano, uye Rusununguko

. [1973] kazhinji kazhinji inokurukurwa senhau yakavanzika, asi pfungwa zhinji mu [[[FLT:]] R [[[FLT:]] [[5]] yakataurawo zvinhu zvinodzivirira zvakafanana nokuda kwavakadzi. Nokufamba kwenguva, [[FLT]] OF7] yekabhuroka v. Hodges[[FLT:] [[5]] [[FLT]] , Dare raivimba kuti chibvumirano chorudyi chokwanyina chive kuti vakwanise. Chiratiso chamakurukuru [10]

Chimwe chiitiko chinokosha ndi.[FLT] United States v. Virginia (1996], apo Dare rakarova Virginia Military Institute yevarume chete. Dare rakashandisa nzvero yepakati pevhu kuti ripedzere kururamisa kunonyengetedza kwa “ikurusa. Kukundikana kuita saizvozvo kutungamirira kukuwanwa kwavakadzi. Mhaka iyi inoratidzira kuti kunyange kunzvera kwapakati penhambo kunogona kuva nesimba apo kunoshandiswa nenzira yakakomba.

Kudzivirira Kwakaenzana

Kukura kwedzidziso kubatanidzwa kweFelt Programme pahurumende yehurumende. Chikamu icho chimene chinoshanda zvakajeka bedzi kunyika. Zvisinei, Dare Rapamusoro rakarangarira kuti Findf Amendment’s Face Ecces Claus rine rutivi rwakafanana chairwoirwo rwedziviriro.[5] , inosarudza zuva rimwe chetero se [[FLT:][FLT] [FLT:] [[1] . [FLT]] BH] v. [[FLT] [[FLT]]

Kupindira Kwemazuva Ano uye Nyika Dziri Kukura

Kudzivirira Claus kwakaenzana kuri kuramba kuchikonzera kukurukurirana kukuru sezvo vanhu vachitarisana nemarudzi matsva okusarura uye kusaenzana.

Chiito Chinosimbisa

Nzvimbo shomanene dzomutemo wedziviriro wakaenzana dzinopesana nokubvuma chiito . . . .[FLT]] . . .[FLT] Getts dzeUniversity of California. Bakke[[[FLT:]][FLD]] [12]] [masangano anorangarira kuti rudzi], Dare rakadavira kuti mwero wedzinza hausati uri weyakare asi kuti rudzi runogona kurangarirwa sechinhu chimwe pakati pezvisakiso zvizhinji. Zviimo zvapashure [FLT:][FFFFFF]] [FFFFF:5]]]. [act: v[5] , , , , iyi miuyo inopfunzero yakashamira.[10]

Kugamuchira Kodzero Nokuvengana Kwedzinza

Chikamu chave chiriwo chinhu chikuru chinodenha mitemo yokuvhota. Dare rapamusoro rashandisa dziviriro yakaenzana kurova gerrymanders yedzinza . uko mitsetse yoruwa inokweverwa kuderedza simba revhotera shomanene (muzvinoitika zvakadai [FLT]]]] Show v. [[FLT][FLT]] [1993] [[FLT]] uye [FT]] [[FLT]]] Alabama Legative Blave Clauccus v.[FLT][FFFF]] [FFF]] [FF] , inomutsikiyisa , inotongedzeka , inotoda kudzosa kana kuti ipotongedzedzedze zvose zviri zviviri.[10]

LGBTQ+ Kodzero Dzavanopfuura Vakaroorana

[[FLT: 0] Obergefell[[FLT: 1] akawana wirirano yeroorano, mamwe marudzi orusaruro paLGBTQ+ vanhu vasara vachikwikwidzwa. Mu Macatenced Taghop v. Colorado Commissiontion Commission [2017] [2008] , Dare rakasarudza raitendera mugamuchiri wezvingwa uyo akaramba kugadzira keke romuchato nokuda kwevaviri vaviri veex, asi chisarudzo chakachinja paruvengo rwezvakadaviro zvechitendero panzvimbo panzvimbo pokusarira. Dare rinotosarudza kana kuti mamiriro evatano akatarisana nedare rakakamuraniswa.

Ruramisiro Youtsotsi Nokusaenzana Kwemari

Zvibvumikiso zvedziviriro zvakafanana zvinosimudzirwa nenzira inowedzera mumashoko echinjo yeruramisiro yamatsotsi. Kuvambira pakupa ruramisiro yedzinza kusvikira kutongerwa kwapashoma, vatsoropodzi vanotaura kuti tsika inobata varombo navapomerwi vashoma nenzira isina kuvimbika. Dare rapamusoro, zvisinei, rave richizengurira munhau kushandisa nzvero dzakawedzerwa kumapoka akavakirwa papfuma, kuchisiya kutaura kwakawanda kwokusaenzana kwezvemari kuti kuve nehwaro. Uku kuzviisa pasi kwapakudzoresa kwapapo. Kutsigira kwedzinza kwakaipa kwave kunovhiringidza, asi chitsamanyuko chinopfuurira kupfuurira kukumbirwa mudenho dzokushandisa mari, faindiro, mari, uye mari inodzorwa zvinotapura varombo nenzira inoshamisa.

Michina Yemishonga Yechidhinari: Kudzivirirwa Kwakaenzana Kwakaitwa

Kuti unzwisise kuti matare anoona sei kudzivirira kwakaenzana, zvinobatsira kufamba nomumitemo yakasiyana - siyana. Pamubatanidzwa unotanga kudenha mutemo unofanira kuratidza kuti mutemo wacho unoisa vanhu mumapoka munzira yakati, zvichireva kuti unobata vanhu vari munzvimbo yakasiyana. Dare racho rinozosarudza kuti kuongorora kunoshanda panzvimbo ipi kana kuti kodzero inokosha iri pangozi.

Kana marongedzero akananga ku “kirasi yespect” (race, mavambo enyika) kana kuti mitwaro we“ kurudyi rwechienzi” (kufamba kwepakati penyika, kuva woga), kunzvera kwakakomba. Kana mativirwo acho akananga kunanga kuboka re“quasi-suspect". (gener, stendimacy), kunzvera kworumwe rudzi kunoshanda. Mamwe marudzi ose anowana hwirudzura kwakarurama.

Vamwe vanotaura kuti kunopa vatongi uchenjeri hukurusa kusarudza kuti mapoka api akafanirwa nedziviriro. Vamwe vanotaura kuti anokundikana kukurukura rusarurano rwemiparadza yamapoka akasiana - siana, akadai savakadzi vechiBlack. Pasinei zvapo neaya madate akarongwa, mitsetse yokunzvera inoramba iri iko kudzora mumutemo unodzivirira wakaenzana.

Maonero Anoita Nyika Dzose Kudzivirirwa Kwakaenzana

Kunyange zvazvo Kudzivirira Claus kwakaenzana kuri kwakasiyana nokuAmerica, nheyo dzakwo dzinonzwika munyika yose. Mabumbiro emitemo akawanda azvino uno anobatanidza zvibvumikiso zvakafanana zvokuenzana pamberi pomutemo. Somuenzaniso, Chikamu 15 cheCanadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms chinovimbisa maruramiro okuenzana, uye Chikamu 15 cheChikamu cheChikamu cheCanadian Charter of Rights neRhudos chinovimbisa maruramiro eSouth African Constitution of Rights, uye Gamendings of Loganism chinodzivisa kusarura kwakasimba pazvikonzero zvakawanda, kubatanidza dzinza, vatano, pamuviri, mugariro weroorano, dzinza kana kuti nzanga, zera, zera, rudzidziso, zvitendero, zvitendero, tsika, gamuchidzanwa, uye kuberekwa. Izvi zvinowanzowana pesvedzero yedzidziso dzakasiana nedzidziso dzakasiana nechakasiyana.

Matare enyika yose, akadai seEuropean Court of Human Rights, anorwisanawo nenhau dzedziviriro dzakafanana pasi peChikamu 14 cheEuropean Convention on Human Rights (Chibvumirano cheEurope chekodzero Dzevanhu) Mutemo unoenzanisa nemitemo unopa nzwisiso huru pamusoro pokuti gadziriro dzakasiana - siana dzemitemo dzinodzikamisa sei kuenzana nemimwe mipimo, zvakadai sorusununguko rworudzidziso kana kuti unani.

Zvinetso Nokutsoropodza

Pasinei zvapo nebasa rayo guru, Kudzivirira Kunowirirana hakuna ganhuriro. Chikamu chimwe chinopfuurira chinodikanwa chechikamu chayo : chitsama chinoshanda bedzi kumufambiro wehurumende, kwete kurusarura zvapachivande. Ikoku kunoreva kuti pasina mushonga wemitemo, vanhu vangasava neziviso yebumbiro remitemo pamusoro pomushandi, muridzi wenzvimbo, kana kuti bhizimisi rinosarura. Dare rakaziva kunze apo vatambi vehurumende vanodzorwa nehurumende zvokuti zviito zvavo zvinova zviito zvehurumende, asi izvi zvinoganhurirwa.

Imwe tsoropodzo idzidziso yechikamu yemavambo. Vamwe vatongi vekare vanotaura kuti vagadziri ve 144th Amendment vakaitirwa kudzivisa bedzi rusaruro rwedzinza, kwete rusaruro rwakavakirwa pavatano, mirangariro yevatano, kana kuti zvimwe zvikonzero. Uyu murangariro waizoganhurira zvikuru kusvika kwechikamu. Zvisinei, nyanzvi dzakawanda dzemitemo uye vatongi vanotendera “Bumbiro remitemo rinogaro remitemo”, vachikwikwirira kuti mutauro wakafara wedziviriro unobvumira zvimiro zvitsva zvokusaruramisira.

Pakupedzisira, chitsama chamashoko chakatsoropodzwa nokuda kweganhuriro dzacho dzakadzikatidzwa. Kunyange apo dare rinowana kuputswa kwakaenzana kwedziviriro, kugadzirwa kwemushonga unobudirira kunodenha. Somuenzaniso, pashure pa Brown[, develoption yakapfuurira zvishoma nezvishoma uye yaiwanzonangana nokudzivisa kukuru. Nguva pfupi yapfuura, matare akarwisa kupedza nhevedzano yetsika mumiitiro yetsika neruramisiro yakaenzana kupfurikidza nokudzivirira, uko kunodzivirira pamutemo kupfurikidza nokutarira kudzokera shure uye nhau.

Mupeto: Basa Rasina Kuparadzwa Rokuenzana

Kudzivirira kwakaenzana kwaClaus kunoramba kuri zvose zviri zviviri nhoo nebakatwa mukutsvaka ruramisiro kunopfuurira. Mutauro waro wakapfava, asi zvaunoreva zvakakura. Kubva paMadokorwe Matema okuReformation kusvikira kukuita chiito chanhasi, chitsama chave chiri pakati perwisano hurusa dzetsika nemitemo yeAmerica. Yave ichikumbirwa kubvisa kuvhota, kudzivirira kodzero dzokuvhota, kuva akaenzana kwevarume nevakadzi, uye kudzivirira chiremera cheLGBTQ+ vanhu vamwe navamwe. Asi basa racho harina kupedzwa.

Simba rechikamu ichi harisi mumhinduro dzakatsiga asi musimba racho rokukura kwetsika. Seizvo Justice Thur Good Marshall akambonyora, “Bumbiro reMitemo harirambidzi kushandiswa kwemapoka edzinza; rinorambidza kushandiswa kwemisiyano yedzinza nokuda kwedonzo rokuchengeta kusaenzana kwedzinza.” Musiyano iwoyo pakati pohuenzani hwechingoridzowo zvacho uye uenzani seruramisiro inodzorwa sechinhu chinodzivirira chakaenzana. Vagari, vatsi, uye vatongi vanofanira kuramba vakangwarira kuvimbisa kuti chitsauko chamarudzi ose ari mukati mamiriro ezvinhu eUnited States.

Nokuda kwokuravazve, nzvera [[FLT: 1] Cornell Information Institute yedziviriro yakaenzana, project yenhau dzeDare rapamusoro-soro[[FLT:], uye [[FLT]] Constitution of thetenced transfermesion of the 147 [[FLT]]