Table of Contents
Governors are among the most powerful elected officials in the United States political system, yet many citizens remain unclear about the full scope of their responsibilities and authority. In the United States, a governor serves as the chief executive and commander-in-chief in each of the fifty states and in the five permanently inhabited territories, functioning as head of state and head of government therein. Understanding what governors do is essential for citizens who want to engage effectively in state politics and hold their elected leaders accountable.
While the president often dominates national headlines, governors shape the policies that affect people’s lives most directly. From education and healthcare to transportation infrastructure and public safety, governors oversee the programs and services that citizens interact with on a daily basis. The Constitution reserves most powers to the states, and governors are meant to handle the core functions of daily governance such as education, infrastructure, policing, and public health.
The Chief Executive Role: Managing State Government
As such, governors are responsible for implementing state laws and overseeing the operation of the state executive branch. This executive function represents one of the governor’s most fundamental responsibilities. Unlike the federal government, where the president shares executive power with numerous independent agencies, governors typically exercise more direct control over their state’s administrative apparatus.
Overseeing State Agencies and Departments
Governors carry out their management and leadership responsibilities and objectives with the support and assistance of department and agency heads, many of whom they are empowered to appoint. These agencies handle everything from environmental protection to economic development, from health services to corrections facilities. The governor’s ability to appoint agency heads gives them significant influence over how state policies are implemented and priorities are set.
In most states, agencies like the Department of Health or the state police report to the governor. This reporting structure allows governors to coordinate activities across different departments and ensure that state government operates efficiently and in accordance with their policy vision.
However, gubernatorial appointment power is not unlimited. Governors generally have limited authority in the appointment of state comptrollers and pre and post audit department heads. Governors’ appointment powers are also limited with regard to the heads of state education and higher education agencies. In many states, certain executive branch officials such as the attorney general, secretary of state, or state treasurer are independently elected rather than appointed by the governor.
Implementing and Enforcing State Laws
The executive branch executes laws passed by the state legislatures, with state agencies, departments, or boards often instructed to promulgate rules and regulations to implement those laws. Governors play a crucial oversight role in this process. In many states, Governor’s offices have set up processes to coordinate and oversee these rule promulgations to ensure that the rules adopted by the departments and agencies reflect the Governor’s priorities and philosophy.
This regulatory oversight function allows governors to shape how laws are applied in practice, even when they don’t have direct control over the legislation itself. Through careful management of the rulemaking process, governors can emphasize certain policy priorities and ensure consistency across different state agencies.
Working with Boards and Commissions
In many states the members of these boards are named or nominated by the Governor. And in many of these cases, board members are subject to confirmation by one or both houses of the legislature. These boards and commissions serve various functions across state government.
In some states appointed boards have the primary responsibility for individual programs and agencies and are responsible for the selection of department and agency heads. This is particularly true in the field of education, but boards still retain responsibility for a broad range of other programs in fields such as labor, transportation and health and human services. In most states boards oversee the licensing and regulation of numerous professions and business areas.
Budget Authority: The Power of the Purse
One of the governor’s most significant powers is control over the state budget. The governor heads the government’s executive branch in each state or territory and, depending on the individual jurisdiction, may have considerable control over government budgeting, the power of appointment of many officials (including many judges), and a considerable role in legislation.
Preparing the Executive Budget
In most states, the governor is responsible for preparing and submitting a comprehensive budget proposal to the state legislature. The Division of the Budget advises the governor in fiscal matters and on the management of State government and formulates and executes the executive budget. This process involves extensive analysis and planning.
To accomplish this the division estimates revenue; analyzes agency appropriation requests; conducts hearings to review agency appropriation requests; investigates, supervises and coordinates State agency expenditures; and conducts management studies of State agencies. The governor’s budget proposal sets the framework for legislative budget negotiations and reflects the administration’s policy priorities.
The budget process gives governors tremendous influence over state policy. By allocating resources to certain programs and limiting funding for others, governors can advance their policy agenda even without passing new legislation. State agencies understand that their funding depends on gubernatorial support, which gives governors leverage in ensuring agencies follow their directives.
Budget Execution and Adjustment Authority
Beyond preparing the initial budget, governors often have authority to make adjustments during budget execution. The Governor has certain powers to adjust expenditures. Although these powers do not permit for adjustment of appropriations, the expenditure plan may be changed.
For example, past Governors have issued Executive Orders to implement hiring and equipment purchase freezes and delayed capital expenditures. Under emergency conditions, the Governor is also authorized to direct state resources to meet emergency needs. This flexibility allows governors to respond to changing fiscal conditions and unexpected challenges without waiting for legislative action.
Legislative Powers: Shaping State Law
While governors are not members of the legislature, they play a crucial role in the legislative process through several mechanisms.
Proposing Legislation and Setting the Agenda
Governors often use State of the State messages to outline their legislative platforms, and many Governors prepare specific legislative proposals to be introduced on their behalf. These annual addresses, typically delivered at the beginning of the legislative session, allow governors to set priorities and rally public support for their policy initiatives.
Recommend legislation to the General Assembly. Governors work closely with legislative leaders to advance their policy priorities, and many successful legislative initiatives originate in the governor’s office. In addition, state departments and agencies may pursue legislative initiatives with gubernatorial approval. Executive branch officials often are called to testify on legislative proposals, and Governors and other executive branch leaders will seek to mobilize public opinion and interest groups in favor of or opposition to specific legislative proposals.
Veto Power
Every legislative bill that is passed by the state legislative body is presented to the Governor for signing. State laws prescribe how much time the Governor is allotted to sign or veto proposed legislation following transmittal. The veto power gives governors significant leverage over the legislative process.
Governors can veto state bills, and in all but seven states they have the power of the line-item veto on appropriations bills (a power the President does not have). The line-item veto is particularly powerful because it allows governors to strike specific spending provisions from budget bills without rejecting the entire budget. This gives governors fine-grained control over state spending priorities.
However, gubernatorial vetoes are not absolute. In some cases legislatures can override a gubernatorial veto by a two-thirds vote, in others by three-fifths. In Alabama, Indiana, Kentucky, and Tennessee, the governor’s veto can be overridden by a simple majority vote. In Arkansas, a gubernatorial veto may be overridden by an absolute majority. The difficulty of overriding a veto varies by state, but in most cases it requires substantial legislative support.
Some governors have used veto powers in controversial ways. In Wisconsin, Governor Tony Evers used the state’s partial veto authority in 2023 to turn a two-year school funding increase into a 400-year mandate. By selectively striking digits and punctuation in the budget text, he changed “2024 to 2025” into “2425,” effectively locking in an annual per-student increase for four centuries. This example illustrates how powerful veto authority can be in states that grant governors broad line-item veto powers.
Calling Special Legislative Sessions
Some governors also possess the power to convene a special legislative session to pass bills on short notice. They may be empowered to call special legislative sessions, setting the purpose and agenda for the sessions in advance. This power allows governors to force legislative action on urgent matters or issues that failed to pass during the regular session.
The ability to set the agenda for special sessions gives governors additional leverage, as legislators may be limited to considering only the topics specified by the governor. This prevents the legislature from using a special session to pursue unrelated priorities.
Executive Orders: Direct Policy Action
The authority for Governors to issue executive orders is found in state constitutions and states as well as case law or is implied by the powers assigned to state chief executives. Executive orders allow governors to take direct action on policy matters without legislative approval.
Governors use executive orders to trigger emergency powers during natural disasters or energy crises, create advisory or investigative committees or commissions, and address issues such as regulatory reform, environmental impact, hiring freezes, discrimination, and intergovernmental coordination. The scope and authority of executive orders vary significantly from state to state, with some governors having broad executive order powers while others face more restrictions.
As state leaders, Governors advance and pursue new and revised policies and programs using a variety of tools, among them executive orders, executive budgets, and legislative proposals and vetoes. Executive orders have become an increasingly important tool for governors seeking to implement their policy agendas quickly and decisively.
Emergency Powers and Disaster Response
As chief executive, Governors are responsible for ensuring their state is adequately prepared for emergencies and disasters of all types and sizes. This responsibility has taken on increased importance in recent years as states have faced hurricanes, wildfires, pandemics, and other major emergencies.
Emergency Management Responsibilities
Governors are responsible for ensuring their state is adequately prepared for emergencies and disasters. States focus on four stages of disaster or emergency management: prepare, prevent, respond, and recover. Governors coordinate with federal agencies, local governments, and private sector partners to ensure effective emergency response.
During emergencies, governors often have expanded powers to take swift action. They can write budgets, deploy the National Guard, shut down schools, and, in some cases, rewrite legislation with a stroke of the veto pen. These emergency powers allow governors to respond quickly to evolving situations without waiting for legislative approval.
However, emergency powers have also raised concerns about executive overreach. Governors will always have extraordinary powers, especially in times of crisis, but without strong institutions to check that power, overreach becomes inevitable. Some states have implemented reforms to ensure legislative oversight of prolonged emergency declarations.
Commanding the National Guard
Every state has its own National Guard, which the governor commands. Serve as commander-in-chief of the state’s armed forces. This military authority allows governors to deploy National Guard troops for disaster response, civil unrest, border security, and other state needs.
The National Guard serves a dual role, operating under state control during normal circumstances but subject to federal activation during national emergencies. When operating under state authority, the National Guard provides governors with a significant resource for responding to emergencies and maintaining public order.
Judicial Powers: Clemency and Appointments
Governors exercise important powers within the judicial system, though these vary considerably by state.
Pardons, Commutations, and Reprieves
A governor can issue pardons, prison commutations, and reprieves for people incarcerated in state prisons. He also may grant reprieves, commutations and pardons. This clemency power allows governors to correct injustices, show mercy in exceptional cases, or adjust sentences they believe are too harsh.
The clemency power is one of the most personal and consequential decisions governors make. Pardons can restore civil rights to individuals who have completed their sentences, while commutations can reduce prison sentences for those still incarcerated. Some governors use this power sparingly, while others have granted clemency to hundreds or even thousands of individuals.
Appointing Judges
A majority of governors have the authority to appoint state court judges as well, in most cases from a list of names submitted by a nominations committee. In some states, such as New Hampshire and Rhode Island, governors may also nominate judges to the state Supreme Court to be approved by either a state board, judicial nominating commission, or the State Senate.
Judicial appointments allow governors to shape the state judiciary for years or even decades after leaving office. Judges appointed by governors may serve long terms or even lifetime appointments in some states, giving these appointments lasting significance. The process typically involves some form of legislative or commission oversight to ensure qualified candidates are selected.
Intergovernmental Relations and Representation
Governors serve as the primary representatives of their states in dealings with the federal government and other states.
Federal-State Relations
As chiefs of the state, Governors serve as the intergovernmental liaison to the federal government on behalf of the state. Most governors maintain regular contact with the federal government, mainly via their state’s delegation to Congress. Governors advocate for federal funding, negotiate over federal mandates, and coordinate with federal agencies on issues ranging from disaster relief to healthcare policy.
This intergovernmental role has become increasingly important as federal and state governments share responsibility for major programs like Medicaid, transportation infrastructure, and education. Governors must navigate complex federal-state relationships to secure resources and protect state interests.
The National Governors Association
Governors can also network through the National Governors Association, an advocacy group representing governors who share common goals. The National Governors Association provides a forum for governors to share best practices, coordinate on multi-state issues, and present a unified voice to the federal government on matters affecting states.
Through the NGA and other interstate organizations, governors work together on issues that cross state boundaries, such as regional economic development, environmental protection, and transportation planning. These collaborative efforts allow states to address shared challenges more effectively than they could individually.
Filling U.S. Senate Vacancies
In 47 of the 50 states, whenever there is a vacancy of one of the state’s U.S. Senate seats, that state’s governor has the power to appoint someone to fill the vacancy until a special election is held; the governors of Oregon, Alaska, and Wisconsin do not have this power. This appointment power can have significant national political implications, as it may affect the balance of power in the U.S. Senate.
Senate appointments are often among the most politically sensitive decisions governors make, as they must balance party loyalty, constituent preferences, and the qualifications of potential appointees. The temporary nature of these appointments means they typically last only until the next election, but they can still influence important legislative votes during that period.
Ceremonial and Symbolic Functions
Beyond their formal powers, governors serve important ceremonial and symbolic roles as the public face of their states.
A state governor may give an annual State of the State address in order to satisfy a constitutional stipulation that a governor must report annually (or in older constitutions described as being “from time to time”) on the state or condition of the state. Governors of states may also perform ceremonial roles, such as greeting dignitaries, conferring state decorations, issuing symbolic proclamations or attending the state fair.
These ceremonial functions may seem minor compared to governors’ policy-making powers, but they serve important purposes. Governors use these occasions to build public support for their initiatives, recognize outstanding citizens and organizations, and promote state pride and unity. The symbolic leadership provided by governors can be particularly important during times of crisis or tragedy, when citizens look to their governor for reassurance and direction.
Variations in Gubernatorial Power Across States
While all governors serve as their state’s chief executive, the specific powers they hold vary depending on state constitutions and laws. The responsibilities of a governor vary from state to state, as the state constitution prescribes a governor’s power.
Some states grant their governors extensive powers, including broad appointment authority, strong veto powers, and significant control over the budget process. These “strong governor” states give their chief executives considerable ability to implement their policy agendas and manage state government effectively.
Other states limit gubernatorial power through various mechanisms. Some states elect multiple executive branch officials independently, reducing the governor’s control over the executive branch. Others require legislative approval for many gubernatorial appointments or limit the governor’s budget authority. Some states restrict the governor’s veto power or make it easier for the legislature to override vetoes.
The variation in gubernatorial power reflects different state political cultures and historical experiences. States that have had negative experiences with executive overreach may impose more restrictions on their governors, while states that value executive efficiency may grant broader powers. Understanding these variations is important for citizens seeking to hold their governors accountable, as the appropriate expectations for gubernatorial action depend on the powers granted by state law.
Term Limits and Eligibility Requirements
Every state conducts a gubernatorial election once every four years. However, the rules governing who can serve as governor and for how long vary by state.
Most states legally require that their governor be a resident of the state at the time of their election and impose minimum age requirements. These eligibility requirements ensure that governors have sufficient maturity and connection to the state they will lead.
Many states also impose term limits on their governors. Some states limit governors to two consecutive terms, while others allow governors to serve two terms total, whether consecutive or not. A few states impose no term limits at all, allowing governors to serve indefinitely if they continue to win reelection. Term limits affect gubernatorial behavior, as governors in their final term may feel freer to pursue controversial policies without concern for reelection.
The Path to the Governorship
The winning candidates tend to have experience in other political offices with posts such as lieutenant governor, US representative, US Senator, or as a member of state legislature. Most governors have built their political careers through service in other elected positions, developing the skills and relationships necessary to run a state effectively.
An aspiring governor may run for lower-level offices, such as school board or city council, and gradually work their way up. Historically, fame and personal fortune can help candidates ascend from the private sector to governorship. While the traditional path involves climbing the political ladder, some successful governors have come from business, entertainment, or other non-political backgrounds.
The Lieutenant Governor and Succession
All with the exception of five states and one territory (Arizona, Maine, New Hampshire, Oregon, Puerto Rico, and Wyoming) have a lieutenant governor. The lieutenant governor succeeds to the gubernatorial office (the powers and duties but not the office, in Massachusetts and West Virginia), if vacated by impeachment, death, or resignation of the previous governor.
Lieutenant governors also serve as unofficial acting state governors in case the incumbent governors are unable to fulfill their duties, and they often serve as presiding officers of the upper houses of state legislatures. The lieutenant governor’s role varies significantly by state, with some lieutenant governors exercising substantial independent authority while others serve primarily as successors-in-waiting.
In most states, the governor serves alongside a lieutenant governor, elected either on the same ticket or a separate ticket. When the governor and lieutenant governor are elected on the same ticket, they typically work as a team with aligned policy priorities. When elected separately, they may come from different parties or have different political agendas, which can create tension within the executive branch.
Why Understanding Gubernatorial Power Matters
For citizens seeking to engage effectively in the political process, understanding what governors do and the powers they exercise is essential. Governors make decisions that directly affect education quality, healthcare access, infrastructure development, environmental protection, criminal justice, and countless other areas of daily life.
Unlike federal politics, which can seem distant and abstract, state government directly touches citizens’ lives in tangible ways. The quality of local schools, the condition of roads and bridges, the availability of healthcare services, and the safety of communities all depend in large part on decisions made by governors and state governments.
Citizens who understand gubernatorial powers are better equipped to evaluate their governor’s performance, advocate for policy changes, and hold elected officials accountable. They can assess whether their governor is using available powers effectively or overstepping constitutional boundaries. They can participate more meaningfully in gubernatorial elections by understanding what powers the office holds and what realistic expectations they should have for gubernatorial action.
Moreover, understanding the variation in gubernatorial power across states helps citizens appreciate the diversity of American federalism. The United States is not a uniform system but rather a collection of fifty different state governments, each with its own constitutional structure, political culture, and distribution of powers. This diversity allows states to serve as “laboratories of democracy,” experimenting with different approaches to governance and policy challenges.
The Balance of Power and Accountability
While governors wield significant power, they operate within a system of checks and balances designed to prevent abuse of authority. State legislatures can override vetoes, reject appointments, and investigate executive branch activities. State courts can strike down executive orders and other gubernatorial actions that exceed constitutional authority. The media and civil society organizations scrutinize gubernatorial decisions and hold governors accountable to the public.
This system of checks and balances is essential to democratic governance. While the president faces near-constant scrutiny, many governors operate with minimal oversight. Citizens and institutions must remain vigilant to ensure that gubernatorial power is exercised responsibly and in the public interest.
Recent years have seen increased attention to the scope of gubernatorial emergency powers, particularly following the COVID-19 pandemic. Many governors issued extensive emergency orders affecting business operations, school closures, and public gatherings. These actions sparked debates about the appropriate limits of executive authority during emergencies and the need for legislative oversight of prolonged emergency declarations.
These debates highlight the ongoing tension between the need for swift executive action during crises and the importance of maintaining democratic accountability. Finding the right balance requires engaged citizens who understand both the powers governors need to govern effectively and the limits necessary to prevent overreach.
Resources for Learning More
Citizens interested in learning more about their governor’s powers and activities have numerous resources available. The National Governors Association provides information about gubernatorial powers, best practices, and policy initiatives across states. State government websites typically include information about the governor’s office, including organizational structure, policy priorities, and recent actions.
Local news organizations play a crucial role in covering state government and holding governors accountable. Following state political news helps citizens stay informed about gubernatorial decisions and their impacts. State legislative websites provide information about bills the governor has signed or vetoed, budget proposals, and other legislative interactions.
Academic institutions and think tanks also produce research on state government and gubernatorial power. These resources can provide deeper analysis of how governors use their powers and the effectiveness of different governance approaches. Organizations like the Council of State Governments publish comprehensive data on state government structures and operations.
Conclusion
Governors occupy a unique and powerful position in American government. As chief executives of their states, they oversee vast bureaucracies, manage multi-billion dollar budgets, shape legislative agendas, respond to emergencies, and represent their states to the nation and world. The powers they exercise touch nearly every aspect of citizens’ lives, from the schools children attend to the roads families drive on to the healthcare services communities receive.
Understanding what governors do empowers citizens to participate more effectively in democratic governance. It enables voters to make informed choices in gubernatorial elections, to advocate for policy changes through appropriate channels, and to hold their elected leaders accountable for their decisions. It also helps citizens appreciate the complexity of governing a state and the challenges governors face in balancing competing interests and priorities.
As the American federal system continues to evolve, governors will remain central figures in addressing the challenges facing their states and the nation. Climate change, healthcare costs, infrastructure needs, educational quality, economic development, and social justice all require effective state leadership. Citizens who understand gubernatorial powers and responsibilities are better positioned to ensure their governors meet these challenges successfully and in accordance with democratic principles.
The next time you hear about your governor signing a bill, issuing an executive order, proposing a budget, or responding to an emergency, you’ll have a deeper understanding of the constitutional powers and practical considerations behind those actions. That understanding is the foundation of informed citizenship and effective democratic participation in state government.