Amalungelo abamangalelwa kwiinkundla zolwaphulo-mthetho abangela ukuba nayiphi na inkqubo yokusesikweni efuna ukuba nesidima, ingakhethi buso, kwaye ingabikho kurhulumente. Ezi zixhobo zokukhusela aziyonjongo zobulumko; ziluncedo, zinyanzelisayo eziqinisekisa ukuba umntu omangalelweyo uphathwa ngesidima kwaye urhulumente akanakukwazi ukuqinisekisa ukuqiniseka ngokunyanzelwa, ikhethelo, okanye izinqumlisi eziphezulu. Ukuqonda la malungelo ayimfuneko kungekuphela kweingcali ezingokwasemthethweni kodwa nakumntu wonke oxabisa umthetho. Ngaphandle kwemigaqo eqinileyo yokukhusela ummangalelwa, yonke inkqubo yogwebo ibeka engozini yokuba lisisixhobo sokucinezela kunokuba libe lixhoba lenyaniso kunye nokuphendula.

Isiseko Samalungelo Athethelelwayo Embalini

Ingcamango yokuba umntu otyholwayo ufanelwe lukhuseleko oluthile ngaphambi kokuba ohlwaywe yavela ngokuthe ngcembe kwiinkulungwane. uMagna Carta ka1215 usoloko echazwa njengoxwebhu olusisiseko, ingakumbi isiqinisekiso sokuba akukho mntu okhululekileyo onokuthi avalelwe okanye ahlulwe impahla yakhe esemthethweni engoontanga bakhe okanye umthetho welizwe. Eli binzana lityalwe imbewu yokuvavanywa ngabachopheli-mthetho nomgaqo ofanelekileyo. Ngexa lilinganiselweyo, lisebenzisa iprojekthi ye-deta.

IBhili yamaLungelo yaseNgilani yowe-1689 inkxaso ephambili ephambili ekhuselweyo ekwalelweni ngokuthintela ibheyile egqithisileyo kunye nesohlwayo esingaqhelekanga. Kwakhona yakwalela ukusetyenziswa kokubeka imali eninzi ngokugqithisileyo nokuqinisekisa ilungelo lokucela umlawuli. La malungiselelo kamva aphembelela ngamandla uLawulo lweSindululo lwesibhozo ku-U.S. uMgaqo-siseko. Ngaphandle koko i-Atlantiki, umGaqo-siseko wesizwe we-United States (1787) kunye noMgaqo-o-omatiswano-omati (1791) kunye nomthetho onyanzelelweyo wonke (1791) kunye nomthetho-omthetho-omthetho-womGenethithi.

Kwinkulungwane yamashumi amabini, iSibhengezo esingavumelaniyo somthetho wamatyala oluntu (1948) sayiguqula yonke le migaqo. Inqaku 10 liqinisekisa wonke umntu "intetho elungileyo neyasekuhlaleni ngenkundla ezimeleyo nengakhethiyo," kunye neQumrhu 11 elimisela ukubekwa kwetyala, ilungelo lokuvavanywa kukawonke-wonke, kunye nokukhuselwa kwemithetho yeposi. Namhlanje, amazwe amaninzi edemokhrasi afaka uhlobo oluthile lwala malungelo kwimithetho-siseko okanye umthetho wemithetho ye-statoothori, nangona imilinganiselo ecacileyo kunye nomthetho womthetho womthetho wahlukene ngokubanziwa ngokubanzi. Imbali ibonisa intshukumo ecacileyo: ukunyathela kugunyazo olusemthethweni kubaphathi abalungele ukuma kolawulo olulungeleneyo, umgangatho ophezulu okwindawo ebanzi. Ukukhangela nzulu kwindima yabo ephambili kwiMata, iMacta, iMacta.[2]

Imigaqo-nkqubo yokhuseleko

Iimvavanyo zale mihla zezaphuli-mthetho zilawulwa yiqela lamalungelo anxulumeneyo. Ngelixesha kuxutyushwa ngamalungelo ngokwahlukeneyo, la malungelo asebenza kunye ukulwa nobuncwane obukhulu namandla ancedisanayo esizwe. Ngezantsi zezona zikhuseli zibalulekileyo ezinikwa abamangalelwa phantse wonke umthetho oqhelekileyo kunye nomthetho welizwe.

Ingcamango Yokungabi Nanto

Mhlawumbi eyona ngcamango isisiseko kukuba ummangalelwa ucingelwa ukuba umsulwa de agwetywe emsulwa ngaphandle kokuthandabuza. Lo mgaqo uguqula wonke umthwalo wobungqina kwityala. Ummangalelwa akuyomfuneko ukuba angqine ukuba akanatyala; urhulumente kufuneka angqine zonke iinkalo zolwaphulo-mthetho. Ngokuqhelekileyo, ukucingela ukuba umsulwa kuchaphazela yonke into ukusuka kwimiyalelo yejaji kwimithetho ecacileyo. Ithintela ukuchaza okuchaseneyo ngabatshutshisi, ithintela ummangalelwa ukuba angaphathwa njengonotyala phambi kokuqiniseka, kwaye ifuna ukuba naliphi na ithandabuzane elisengqiqweni likhokelela ekuhehlweni. Ngaphandle koku, amanye amalungelo ommangalelwa angayi kuvakalanganto.

Ilungelo Lokuvavanywa Ngokufanelekileyo Nangokusesikweni

UHlomelo lweSithandathu loMgaqo-siseko wase-U.S. luqinisekisa ukuba "ityala leqonga kunye netyala likawonke-wonke, liyilwe ngabachopheli-mthetho abangakhethiyo". Ijaji engenamkhethe ithetha ukuba abachopheli-jaji abachopheli-tyala kufuneka bangabi nakhethe, ikhethe, kunye nempembelelo ngaphandle. Inkqubela yokubuza ukuba abagwebi abanokuba ngabagwebi, yenzelwe ukutyhila amatyala. Ityala liqinisekisa ukuba ukubonakala kwangaphandle, ukukhutshwa kwetyala nokunganyaniseki, kwaye ivumela ukulawulwa kwetyala okukhawulezileyo kuthintela ukuvalelwa okungagqibeleliyo nokuqinisekisa ukuba ubungqina abupheli. Kwimithetho emininzi, ukuba imeko ayiphumeleli ukumangalelwa kwetyala ngexesha elichaziweyo, izityholo zingalahlwa.

Ilungelo Lokululekwa

Ilungelo lokumela ngokusemthethweni lilo lilelombombo lobulungisa obungathathi nxaxheba. Ityala leNkundla ePhakamileyo yase-U.S. Gideon v. Wainright (1963) libambe ukuba amagqwetha kufuneka anikezele igqwetha elingenamali kubamangali abangakwazi ukuhlawula omnye kwiimeko zetyala. Eli lungelo ladluliselwa nakweliphi na icala. Eli tyala likhulu kamva apho ummangalelwa ajongene khona. Uncedo olusebenzayo lwecebiso luthetha okuninzi kunokuba negqwetha elikhoyo; igqwetha kufuneka likwenze ngendlela esengqiqweni. Ukumela okungafumani bungqina, ukubiza amangqina, okanye ukuvavanya ubungqina. [w3] UGidiontel]

Ilungelo Lokuhlala Uthule Nokuzikhusela Ekuzichaseni

Lona usekelwe kuMphetho wesihlanu, eli lungelo lithintela urhulumente ukuba angamnyanzeli ummangalelwa ukuba anikele ubungqina ngokuchasene naye. Isilumkiso esaziwayo sikaMiranda ``'' unelungelo lokuthula. Nantoni na oyithethayo ingasetyenziswa kuwe enkundleni...." Lo nto iphuma kulo khuseleko. Ilungelo elichasene nokuzithethelela lisebenza ngexesha lokuncinwa kwegunya, enkundleni, nakwezinye izimangalelo ze-mvume. Ummangalelwa okhetha ukuhlala athule akanakuba nalo ubungqina bokuziva ityala lomtshutshisi. Lo rhulumente unyanzelela ukuba akhe ityala lakhe ngokusebenzisa ubungqina obuzimeleyo, hayi ngokukhupha iingxengxezo ngegunya okanye ngenkohliso.

Amalungelo Okuchasana NamaNgqina Ahlola Umnqamlezo

IsiHlanziso seSithandathu siqinisekisa kwakhona ukuba icebo lokuzikhusela linelungelo "lokujamelana namangqina achasene naye." Olu ngquzulwano lunika abamangalelwa ithuba lokunqumla-ii-examine nabuphi na ubungqina obuchasene nabo. Ukunqamleza-ukuhlola . Ngokufuthi kubizwa "injini enkulu esemthethweni yakha yaveliswa ukufunyanwa kwenyaniso""---------yavumela isiluleko sokuzikhusela ukuvavanya ingqiqo yobungqina, inkumbulo, ikhethe, okanye ukuthembeka. Isigqibo seNkundla ePhakamileyo ye-FLT:0] Crawford v. Washington (2004) ngokuphawulekayo ukuqiniswa kwalethwa oku, ukuba amazwi okunika ubungqina akanakuvunywa ngaphandle kokuba ubungqina bungafumaneki kwaye umShuzukisi ube nethuba lokusetyenziswa konqamlezo-uhluzo. Oku kuthintela kusetyenziswa kokusetyenziswa kobuphicotho-vidiso okanye ukuphendla.

Ilungelo Lokunikela Ubungqina Nenkqubo Enyanzelisayo

Ukudityaniswa kwamalungelo okujamelana naso lilungelo lokubiza amangqina kwinkxaso yomntu. UMthetho woMphetho weSithandathu ka-Chost Programme Claus uvumela abamangalelwa ukuba babe ngamangqina angaphantsi kwepoena kwaye banyanzelise ubungqina babo. Ukudityaniswa nelungelo lokunikela ubungqina "$documents, iingxelo ze-allensic, iingxelo, ii-alibia, le nto iqinisekisa ukuba abachopheli-mthetho baluva udidi olupheleleyo lweziganeko. Umthetho wobungqina bokuzikhusela kufuneka uxonxwelwe ngokumfa kwaye ungakwazi ukubushiya ngokuzenzekelayo, izinto ezichaphazelekayo. Iinkundla ezininzi ziye zapheliswa xa kamva zifumaniwe ukuba ukuzikhusela kuthintelwe ekudluliseleni ubungqina obubalulekileyo.

Ukhuseleko Kwingozi Ephindwe kabini

UHlaziyo lwesihlanu lukwalela ukubeka umntu engozini yobomi okanye ilungu lomntu kwityala elifanayo. Xa ijaji ithe yakhupha isigqibo sokungammangalelwa, urhulumente akanakumbhena ummangalelwa ukuba amgwebe okanye ammangalele ummangalelwa ngenxa yetyala elifanayo. Oku kuthintela urhulumente ukuba angammangaleli ngokuphindaphindiweyo umntu de aqinisekise ukumangalelwa, ukusindisa abamangalelwa ekuhlukunyezweni ngokweemvakalelo nakumonakalo wemali ophindwayo. Kukho ukungalinganiswa, njengaxa ityala eliphosakeleyo lisenzeka ngemvume yommangalelwa okanye xa izikhulu ezahlukeneyo (umthetho norhulumente) zizisa izityholo zehambo efanayo.

Ukukhuselwa Kwimpatho Egqithiseleyo Nesohlwayo Esingaqhelekanga

ISinyuso seNkqutyana sesibhozo siyakwalela ukunyanzelisa ibheyile eninzi, ukuhlawuliswa kakhulu, okanye ukunikwa isigwebo esigqithisileyo esingaqhelekanga. I-Bail isetyenziselwa ukuqinisekisa ukubonakala kwetyala lommangalelwa xa evavanywa, hayi ukumohlwaya okanye ukuvalela ngenxa yokuba nengozi okunokwenzeka. Iinkundla kufuneka zimisele ibheyile elingana nexabiso elisengqiqweni elinikwa abamangalelwa ubuncwane bemali kunye nohlobo lwetyala. Xa ibheyileyo, ummangalelwa angachitha iinyanga ezithile evalelwe, nto leyo enokuba neziphumo ezinzulu zokusebenza, iphazamisa ubomi bentsapho, kunye noxinzelelo lokugweba netyala elinomodelelo olungaqhelekanga, ivala isigwebo esinenkohlakalo solwaphulo-mthetho okanye isigwebo esingesohlwayo okanye isilwanoko esinempala, esitho okanye esingekho ngqiqweni.

Uphando lwamalungelo okhuselo lwenkqubo yeQumrhu

La malungelo akangomthetho nje oqhelekileyo; aneziphumo ezinzulu ezisebenzisekayo nezingokwenkqubo. Xa enyanzelekile, ayazilinda ukuba imigaqo yokugweba ingasebenzi kakuhle.

Ukuzikhusela Kwiinkolelo Eziphosakeleyo

Lilonke ilungelo elichazwe ngasentla lidlala indima ekuthinteleni abantu abamsulwa ekugwetyweni. Ilungelo lokucebisa, umzekelo, liqinisekisa ukuba ummangalelwa unobungqina obubuthathaka, ukubonakala kwaboni abachaphazelekayo, okanye ukuvunywa kobuxoki. Ilungelo lokudibana namangqina liyakwazi ukubhenca okanye ukunganyaniseki. Ukubekwa ityala kunye nomthwalo ophezulu wobungqina kwenza kube nzima ukuvalelwa ngokusekelwe kubungqina obubuthathaka okanye obungachananga. Iintlangano ezifana neprojekthi ye-Invonce Iproject yeIncence isebenzise ubungqina obungaphindiweyo obungachaphazelekayo, abaninzi kubo ababebotshelelwe ngokuphosakeleyo, ababekiwe ngenxa yokokuba bagwetyelwe ngenxa ye-$/oolol. Iinkolelo ezingokwanjalo azitshabalanisa ubomi babo kuphela kodwa zisabubububunyani, kodwa zikwanelele abantu abagwetyisw ’

Ukugcina Intembelo Kawonke - wonke Nomthetho

Yinkqubo yokugweba ehlonela amalungelo abamangalelwa efumana ukuthenjwa ngabantu. Xa abantu bekholelwa ukuba ukuvavanywa kulungile nokuba ummangalelwa uphathwa ngesidima, basengozini yokusebenzisana nomthetho, basebenze kwiinkundla, bamkele izigwebo zenkundla. Ngokwahlukileyo koko, xa abamangalelwa bekhatywa, benyanzelwa ukuba bavume izono, okanye bazame ngokufihlakeleyo, ukuthenjelwa nguwonke wonke. Ukuthemba kudla ngokuchanabeka ngokukhethekileyo kuluntu abaye bafumana ucalucalulo kunye nokulawulwa kakhulu. Ukuxhasa amalungelo enkundlani kuyindlela enye yokubonisa ukuba inkqubo isebenza ngokulinganayo kubo bonke, kungakhathaliseki ukuba baluhlanga, ubutyebi, okanye imeko yabo.

Ukulungelelanisa Amalungelo nokhuseleko

Amalungelo akhuselweyo maxa wambi ayangqubana nomnqweno wokulawula ulwaphulo-mthetho olufanelekileyo kunye nokhuseleko lwexhoba. Umzekelo, imithetho ecacileyo ingabukhupha ubungqina obufanelekileyo ukuba ifunyenwe ngokungekho mthethweni, kwaye ilungelo lokuvavanywa ngokukhawuleza kungakhokelela ekugxothweni xa ityala linzima. Olu xinezeleko luphuma kumthetho nayiphi na inkqubo yedemokhrasi. Ukusabela okufanelekileyo akukokwenza buthathaka kodwa ukwabela ubuncwane ngendlela ephumelelayo ukuze inkqubo isebenze ngokunempumelelo kwimida esemthethweni. Iimvavanyo ezikhawulezayo zifuna iinkundla kunye nabagwebi abafanelekileyo. Isiluleko esinenkxaso-mali sifuna ukukhuselwa ngokufanelekileyo koluntu ii-ofisi zokhuseleko. Ukulungelelanisa amalungelo kawonke kuthetha ukuvuma iinkolelo eziphosakeleyo kunye nezihlalo zedemo-mthetho ekugqibeleni zenza umonakalo kuluntu kunokuba zincede.

Ucelomngeni Lokuthethelela Amalungelo

Phezu kwazo nje iinkulungwane zenkqubela, amalungelo abo bamangalelwayo ajamelana neengcinezelo ezinzulu kule mihla.

Umelo olwaneleyo kunye noMthetho wokuKhuselwa kukaRhulumente

Ilungelo lokucebisa linento eninzi ukuba igqwetha lisebenza kakhulu, lihlawulwa phantsi, okanye liswele izinto zokuxhasa ngokufanelekileyo. Ii-ofisi zokhuselo lukawonke-wonke kwimimandla emininzi ye-U.S. zithwala amatyala angaphezulu kakhulu kwemigangatho yesizwe. Igqwetha elinamakhulu abaxhasi alinakuchitha ixesha elaneleyo nakweyiphi na imeko, likhokelela ekufakeni izingxubusho, liphosa amathuba okucinezela, kwaye lisilele ukuphengulula i-libaris okanye i-ocessic. Amanye amazwe aye afumana impumelelo ekufuneni inkxaso eyaneleyo. [[FLT:]] Isiko sokuHlunyuselo somphelo lwexesha elaneleyo [ luzinika ezi ngxelo kwaye lusebenza ukuqinisekisa ukuba icebiso elifanelekileyo lisebenza, hayi nje kwimibandela yephepha.

Ii-bias ezisetyenziswayo kunye nomahluko

Ukwahluka ngokweentlobo zobuhlanga, zobuhlanga, kunye nezentlalo-ntle yentlalo kuxhaphakile kwinkqubo yolwaphulo-mthetho. Uphando lubonisa ukuba abamangalelwa abamnyama nababhila-bhabhayo basengozini yokuvalelwa ngaphambi koshicilelo, kuncinane kakhulu ukufumana izingqiniso ezintle, kwaye kunokwenzeka kakhulu ukuba bafumane izigwebo ezinde kuneejaji ezimhlophe ezimangalelwe ngolwaphulo-mthetho olulinganayo. Ucalucalucalulo olupheleleyo lungachaphazela abagwebi, abagwebi, kwanabameli abakhuselayo. Ngoxa amalungelo ngokwawo ewo emibalabala, ukunyanzeleka kwabo akubi. Ukuphendula kweziphatho zomrhumelo kufuna utshintsho lwemali kunye nokuphelisa inkculo-mfo.

Iingcinezelo Ezinamandla Zeplanga

Uninzi lwamatyala olwaphulo-mthetho aconjululwa ngokufaka izingcelele, kungekhona ngokuvavanywa. E-United States, malunga nama-95% azo zonke iinkolelo zibangelwa zizicelo zetyala. Le ndawo inamandla ixinezelela abamangalelwa ukuba balahle amalungelo abo okuvavanywa ngenxa yesigwebo esincitshisiweyo. Abatshutshisi bangasoyikisa ngokunempumelelo isigwebo esiqatha kakhulu ekumangalweni, abamangalelwa abamsulwa ukuba bamangalelwe ngetyala elinotyala. Ilungelo lokumangalelwa kumatyala, ilungelo lokumelana namangqina, kwanelungelo lokuhlala bethe cwaka lonke lisiba ngamalungelo ephepha ukuba inkqubo yabo idiza ukuqhelisa imigaqo ngokukhupha ityala. Ezinye izindululo, njengokujongelwa kwezicelo zezicelo nemiqathango esemthethweni, ukuphelisa uxinzelelo, ukuphelisa uxinzelelo.

Ubuxhakaxhaka bobuxhakaxhaka

Inkqubela kwinzululwazi yezobunzululwazi, uphando lwamanani, kunye nokuqokelelwa kogcino-lwazi kunika ucelomngeni olutsha kumalungelo abamangalelwa. Ilungelo lokujamelana namangqina linzima ngokusebenzisa izixhobo ezintsonkothileyo ze-fonsic apho umhloli owenze uvavanyo angayingqini; ukusetyenziswa "ubungqina obucacileyo" ukusuka kwimithetho-algorithm kuphakamisa imibuzo emalunga nokuhlola okukhoyo. Ilungelo lokuhlala ujongene neengcinezelo ezintsha ezinyanzelekileyo zemveliso yokudlulisa ikhowudi kunye nogcino-data lwebhayoloji. Inkcazazo zokunga lisongelwa yi-scrective ment mentssss ezinokufaka ingqwalaselo yobuhlanga. Iinkundla ziqala nje ukuphikisana nendlela ezikhoyo iimfundiso zomGcimbiso-mgqhinga. Ukuqwalasela ezikhoyo kwezi ngxaki, bona [FL:]

Isiphelo

Amalungelo abamangalelwa ekuvavanyweni kwezaphuli-mthetho asikokugwetywa kobuchule okanye imiqobo esesikweni. Bayilwe ngobuchule ukhuseleko olubonakalisa iinkulungwane zokukhanyiselwa okunzima malunga neengozi zokungathintelwa kolawulo. Ukucingela ukuba msulwa, ilungelo lokucebisa, ukukhusela ukungaziphathi, ukungqubana kwamangqina, kunye nokwalela iingozi eziphindwe kabini nesohlwayo senkohlakalo kuqinisekisa ukuba urhulumente akanakukwazi ukuvuma ngegunya, inkohliso, okanye ikhethe lodwa. La malungelo anciphisa umngcipheko wokuchanaba, agcine ilungelo lokuzithethelela, kwaye alondoloze umgaqo wokuba wonke umntu umbandela umele ukuba ulwaphulo-mthetho `*''' qhatha naxa ebona indlela eyingozi ngayo nesohlwayo elungileyo.

Kodwa amalungelo asemaphepheni awanele. Kufuneka axhaswe, anyanzeliswe, kwaye aqhubeke elungelelaniswa kwiimeko ezintsha. Abakhuseli boluntu, abagcinw'iiingcinga, izibongozo ezithenjiswayo, kunye nokuvela kobugcisa bonke basongela ukuphelisa ukhuseleko olusesikweni oluchaza ulungelelwano olusemthethweni. Ukusetyenziswa kwemithetho, abenzi bomthetho, kunye noluntu kuyimfuneko ukuqinisekisa ukuba isithembiso sokuvavanywa ngokusesikweni sihlala siyinyaniso kubo bonke abamangalelwa. Ekupheleni, amandla enkonzo yebutho labantu yokugweba alinganiswa ngendlela elulaza ngayo abantu abachanakeleyo nabamangalelwayo phakathi kwamalungu alo.