Amalungelo akho asisikhuseli sebutho labantu elikhululekileyo, kodwa intsingiselo nobubanzi bawo abumi ngaxesha linye. Zichazwa, zicociwe, kwaye zikhuselwe ngezigqibo zenkundla ezichaza umGaqo-siseko nemithetho ephawulekayo. Ukuqonda la matyala kubalulekile ekuqondeni indlela inkululeko yoluntu esetyenziswa ngayo kubomi bemihla ngemihla nendlela eguquka ngayo ukuze ihlangabezane neengxaki ezintsha. Eli nqaku lihlola izimiselo ezingundoqo ukunqumla amalungelo amaninzi asisiseko, okubonisa indlela abagwebi abaye bazenza ngayo izinto ezizikhuselayo ezixhomekeke kubomi bakho yonke imihla.

Ilungelo Lokuthetha Ngenkululeko

ISichibiyelo Sokuqala siqinisekisa ukuba "Inkundla ayiyi kwenza mthetho uthintele inkululeko yokuthetha". Kodwa imida yokukhusela iye yavavanywa ngokuphindaphindiweyo. INkundla Ephakamileyo ilungelelanise ukuchazwa ngokukhululekileyo nxamnye nezilangazelelo zokhuseleko lwesizwe, ucwangco loluntu, nesidima somntu ngamnye.

Intetho Yabafundi Nesango Lesikolo

Imeko Isithili seSithili seSikolo soLuntu saseVietnam . Des Moines Independent [1969] sisele sisilinge samalungelo omfundi. Ngonyaka ka1965, iqela labafundi lalinxiba iingalo ezimnyama esikolweni ukuze liqhankqelele imfazwe yaseVietnam. Isithili sesikolo esiyekiweyo, ukuphikisa kokungaphazamisani nokufunda. Le nkundla iPhakamisa ukuchasana kungaphazamisanaba ukufunda. Inkundla inqanda ukuba abafundi babambe ukuba "awachithi amalungelo abo esiseko enkululeko yokuthetha okanye amazwi kwisango lesikolo."Inkundla yaseka ukuba izikolo zinokumisela intetho ephathelele ukuba imicimbi yemfundo okanye iphazamisa imisebenzi yemfundo okanye iphazamisa amalungelo abanye abantu. Le nkqubo ikhusela iintetho ezingalinganiyo zezobupolitika, nangona kamva iye yakhaziswe ngaphandle kwemiboniso-mathethothotho-mda yezopoliti.

Ukuvuselela Nesenzo Esingenamthetho

Intetho ekhululekileyo ayiphakamisi uphazamiso kurhulumente. iBrandenburg v. Ohio [1969], iNkundla yaluphucula uvavanyo lokukrala. IKonqueror iKlux Klan inike intetho esongelayo yokuziphindezela urhulumente. Ithetha ukuba intetho ekhuthaza amandla okanye isenzo esingekho mthethweni ikhuselekile ngaphandle kokuba ijoliswe ekukhuthazeni nasekuvezeni isenzo esingesomthetho esikhawulezileyo. Olu vavanyo lucuthe kakhulu olunyusiweyo lwenkululeko yokuthetha ngokuvuleka komgoqo, imilinganiselo engacacanga. Ithetha ukuba ukukhuselwa kogonyamelo kukhuselwe jikelele; intetho yominye ecedwa ehloselwe ukuvuselela nokubangela izenzo ezingekho mthethweni. [b)]

Ukuchasa Nokukhusela Intetho

Amalungelo okuthetha akhululekileyo akwasikel'umlinganiselo wentengiso. [[FLT Times Co.0] kwiNew York Co. Sullivan [1964], iNkundla yathi uLawulo Lokuqala Lokwenziwa kwemida lukhusela iingxelo zobuxoki ngamagosa kawonke-wonke ngaphandle kokuba benziwe nge "enzakala" ulwazi lokuba le ngxelo ixoka okanye ingakhathaleli inyaniso yayo. Le ntambo ephezulu iqinisekisa ukuba ukugxekwa kwamagosa kawonke wonke akuthintelwanga kukoyika iimpahla zokuxoka. Ityala livela kwisenzo samapolisa esikhankanyiweyo eMontgomey, Alabami. Isigqibo esiguquliweyo somthetho sinomthetho eMelika kwaye someleza indima yokucinezela urhulumente njengokhangelo lwamandla.

Enye Iyona Mida Ingundoqo Yokuthetha

  • I-Citizens United v. FEC (2010): Ijikelele ukuba inkxaso yemali yeshishini yosasazo oluzimeleyo lwezopolitiko ayinakuthintelwa phantsi koMphetho-mda Wokuqala, isigqibo esalungisa kwakhona inkxaso-mali yephulo.
  • ```I-Phelp' (2011): Ukukhusela ingcelele yentiyo kwimingcwabo yasemkhosini njengentetho kwimicimbi yoluntu, ukuqinisekisa ukuba intetho echaphazelekayo isoloko ikhuselwa.
  • IMahanoy Icandelo leSithili seSikolo soMgangatho v. B.L.[[FL:1] (2021): Amandla ezikolo alinganiselweyo okusohlwaya intetho elula kwi-i-compus media yentlalo media, isebenzisa imigangatho ye-Tinker kodwa ngobulumko.

Ukukhuselwa Kwizinto Ezingekho Sikweni Nezingekho Mthethweni

ISichibiyelo sesine sigada "ilungelo labantu ukuba bakhuseleke kubantu babo, kwizindlu, kumaphepha, nakwiziphumo, nxamnye nokuphanda okungekho ngqiqweni nokuxhuzula." Isitshixo kukuba nengqiqo, kwaye iinkundla ziye zachaza oko kuthethwa kukuqhelisela.

Umthetho Wokuphelisa: Isicombululo Sokuchasa

Ku Mapp v.O. [1961], iNkundla Ephakamileyo yasebenzisa umthetho wokususa ityala kumazwe. Ityala laqala xa amapolisa ayehlola uDollree Map'' kwikhaya ngaphandle kwemvume, esithi ayefuna ukuqhushumbisa. Bafumana izinto ezingcolileyo endaweni yoko. INkundla yagqiba ukuba ubungqina obufunyanwa ngokuphendla okungekho ngqiqweni bungasetyenziswa kwiimvavanyo zikarhulumente. Esi sigqibo sanika amazinyo kuMbetho-wo wesine: ngaphandle komthetho owesikhalazo, amapolisa ebengenakuba nasizathu sokuthobela imiqathango yemithetho. Ekuhambeni kwexesha, iNkuNkundla ibangele okungaqhelekanga (njengendawo entle yokungakholwa), kodwa iMaphu ihlala isiseko sokucinywa kobugcineno obungekho mthethweni.

I-Ssipticion eQhubekekayo

Asikokudibana kwamapolisa konke okufunekayo okulindelekileyo. I-Terry v.Ohio (1968), iNkundla yathi abaphathi bangayimisa kwaye bayikhethe umntu ukuba banokukrokrala ngokusengqiqweni umsebenzi wolwaphulo-mthetho kwaye umntu usenokuba uxhotyiswe. Olu mlinganiselo usezantsi womthetho udinga imfihlo. Isigqibo sifuna ukuba ukuqikelelwa kusekelwe ku "inkcaso kunye namacandelo anokusetyenziswa," hayi i-hnch. uTerry umisa into yokwenene yemihla ngemihla yoninzi, ingakumbi imimandla emincinane, kwaye ityala iye yaxutyushwa ngokubanziswa kakhulu. Kamva iNkundla icacisa ukuba ukhuseleko lwegosavel-o-oks lumele lubenolungelenelo, kwaye u-flikelwelwe phantsi kwezixhobo zezixhobo.[2][2][3]

Iifowni, Iiseli Nezobugcisa Bale Mihla

Ubuxhakaxhaka bezobugcisa baluvavanya uknaye lweSine soHlaziyo. Riley v. California [2014] (2014, iNkundla yagqiba nganye ukuba amapolisa afune isiqinisekiso sokuphendla ifowuni yeselula ukuze abanjwe. INkundla yaqonda ukuba icellcell phone ineenkcukacha ezininzi zolwazi lobuqu, ngaphezu komlinganiselo wokufuna komzimba wesithethe. Ngokufanayo, ngo-201818 i-Calpent v. United States[FLT], iNkundla yabonisa ukuba urhulumente ufuna isiqinisekiso sokufumana ulwazi lwezibonelelo lwezicell-omatshini. Le meko ibonisa indlela yokuzilungisa kwe-5 ezihambelana kwimicimbi yolwazi.

  • KAtz v. United States [1967]: yaseka "ulindelo olusengqiqweni lobumfiliba" uvavanyo, ithatha indawo yeemfundiso ezindala ezisekelwe kwimpahla.
  • [[FLT: 0] Florida v. Jardines (2013): Kufunyaniswe ukuba ukusebenzisa inja efaka iziyobisi kwivaranda engaphambili kukukhangela okufuna isiqinisekiso.

Ilungelo Lokuvavanywa Ngokufanelekileyo

ISithandathu SoHlaziyo siqinisekisa ukuba ityala likawonke wonke liza kukhawuleziswa, liqulunqe ityala elingakhethi buso, lincedwe ziingcebiso.

Ilungelo Lokufumana Icebiso: Ukhuseleko Olungenakuthintelwa

Gideon v. Wainwright (63), iNkundla ePhakamileyo yabambelela kwinkundla yephondo ukuba imisele amagqwetha abamangalelwa abangakwaziyo ukuwahlawula kwiimeko ezingobulungisa. UClarence Earl Gideon wayelixhoba elingentle lokugwetywa ngokuqhekeza iholo yequpha emva kokukhanyelwa igqwetha. Wazithethelela ngokwakhe kwisicelo esibhalwe ngesandla kwiNkundla Ephakamileyo. Inkundla yagqiba kwelokuba iSithandathu sokuHlamlamli sinelungelo lokunika isiluleko esingundoqo kumazwe akwiSibhoxobo se-145th Remplifilter. Namhlanje, ukhusela iinkqubo zikawonke wonke zinikela isiluleko kwiimeko ezininzi, nangona imali ehlala ikho. Ityala elilinganayo limele ukuba alifanelekelwe libucala lomntu.

Umfundisi Ongakhethi Buso Nendima Yemizimba Yobuhlanga

Ilungelo lokuchophela ityala elingakhethiyo liquka ukukhululeka kucalucalulo kukhetho lwabachopheli-mthetho. kuBatson v. Kentucky (1986), iNkundla yagqiba ukuba abatshutshisi abanakusishiya isithintelo sohlanga kuphela kwisiseko sohlanga. Ityala libandakanya ummangalelwa omnyama ogwetyiweyo ogwetywe ngabagwebi emva kokuba umtshutshisi egqibile ukuba abethe bonke abamnyama abasebenzi bejaji. Inkundla yadala uvavanyo oluthathu: ummangalelwa kufuneka enze ityala localulo lwe-pma facie, umtshutshisi we-neutral chaza, kwaye igwebi ligqiba ukuba ingcaciso ingulo yalo inyuswe kwi-demist. Batson ithe yakuba i-calucalucalucalucalu-lue. [Foctive AF]

Ukuvavanywa Ngokukhawuleza Nokufakelwa Ngokuphindwe Kabini

ISithandathu IsiHlanziso siqinisekisa ukulingwa okukhawulezileyo. Inkundla ilibazisa ukulwa nezizathu zokulibaziseka. Barker v. Wingo (1972], iNkundla yaseka uvavanyo lokulinganisela: ubude bokulibaziseka, isizathu sokulibazisa, ukulibaziseka, ummangalelwa ulibaziseko lommangalelwa, kunye nocalucalulo kummangalelwa. Ngaphezu koko, iGawulayo yesibini imposiso ephindwe kabini inqanda ukuliselwa kabini icala elinye. Ityala elifana no- . United States[FLT] v.[FLT] [12] [1932]]) icwangcisa uvavanyo lokuba ngaba ulwaphulo-mthetho zimbi ezimbini ziphinde zabekwa.

Ukukhuselwa Ngokulinganayo Phantsi Komthetho

ISichibiyelo seshumi elinesine soKhuselo oluManyeneyo lukaClaus sisixhobo esinamandla sokulwa nocalulo. Amatyala ophawu lwelizwe aye andisa ukufikelela kwawo kulo lonke uhlanga, ubufana, nezinye iinkalo.

Ukuphelisa uHlukano lweMveli

Brown v. Ibhodi yemfundo (1954) mhlawumbi sisigqibo esidumileyo samalungelo abantu. Inkundla yavakalisa ngamxhelo mnye ukuba izikolo ezigwetyweyo "ezingalinganiyo" kwaye zaphula isiseko soKhuselo olulinganayo luka-Claus. Ngokugqithileyo ukujika i "imfundiso kodwa elinganayo" kwi [[FLT:] Plutte] v. Ferguson [1866] [1896], isalathisi somthetho ide jurelivre libagosa kwaye yabeka isiseko sombutho wamalungelo abantu. Inkundla yezomthetho yaqalisa ukulawula umthetho Brown [125] [195] kunye nesikhokelo sokuziphembelela isantya sokuziswe kwe "iisantya esikhokelwe ngayo] yonke iminyaka, ikhokeleleka kuyo yonke i-ognogne.

Umgangatho wesini kunye nobukhulu obuphakathi

Liyavumelana neUnited States v. Virginia (1996], iNkundla Ephakamileyo yawisa phantsi inkqubo yokulaliswa kwamadoda yeVirginia Military Institute. Inkundla yathi imele inikezele ukuba "ngokugqithisileyo" ulungelelwaniso olusekelwe kwisondo. Oku kuvavanywa kwandisiwe ku-‘kuhlolwa okunzima) okungasetyenziswangakuko njengohlanga , ukuqhubela phambili ukulingana kwendoda nemfundo, umsebenzi, nenkonzo yasemkhosini. Ngaphambili, Craig v. Borten [7] kuqwalaselwe uphando oluphakathi kocalucalulo lwezilo lwezo.[6]

  • i- Virginia (1967): imithetho ethintelweyo karhulumente ekwalekwa umtshato wobuhlanga.
  • Obergefell v. Hodges (2015): Ukwamkelwa komtshato olinganayo ngaphantsi kweNkqubo elindelekileyo kunye noKhuselo olulinganayo luka Claus.
  • Izigqibo ze Fair Adgistrals v. Harvard (2023): Ukuvuma ugqatso olungenaziqumrhu kulwazi oluphezulu.

Ilungelo Lokuba Wedwa

Nangona ingazange ikhankanywe ngokucacileyo kuMgaqo - siseko, iNkundla Ephakamileyo iye yavuma ukuba inelungelo lokuzimela ngasese elikhusela izigqibo zobuqu zentsapho, zomtshato nezokuzilawula ngokwasemzimbeni.

Amalungelo Nenkululeko Yokuzala

Roe v. [773], iNkundla yafumanisa ukuba ilungelo lokukhupha isifuba libandakanya isigqibo sebhinqa sokuqhomfa. Isigqibo sasisekelwe kwi-Century Procession Clause ye 1450th Amend Amendment. Kwiminyaka emalunga nama-50, uRoe wakhusela ukuqhomfa ezweni lonke, nangona kwakhona wavumela iimeko zokulawula ukuqhomfa emva kokusebenza. Dobs v. Jackson’s Organization Health Health Organization [[FLT:] 202], iNkundla elawula uRode, ukuphuma komtyalo, ukuphuma kwemiqathango, ukubuyisela umthetho kumazwe. Ingxoxo engaphandle neyokuqhubekeka kwezobugropoziquampmplg.

Ukusebenzisa iprojekthi kunye nezigqibo ezisuka entliziyweni

Griswold v. Connecticut (65), iNkundla yawisa umthetho ovala ukusetyenziswa kwezokuthintela ukukhawula phakathi kwezibini ezitshatileyo. IJaji Douglas yathi ngokudumileyo ingqina ukuba iBhili yamaLungelo yenza "ipenubras" ukwenza ummandla wemfihlo. Eli tyala lalungisa indlela yentambo kunye nezigqibo ezikhuselekileyo. LAWREnce v. Texas[FLT][2003] [2003], inkundla yandisa ukhuseleko lwezobuqu kwihambo efanayo yangaphambili, ukukhusela [[FLT] ii-B] ezingaphezulu.

Ilungelo Lokudlala

Ukurhweba kunelungelo elisisiseko, kodwa kuye kwathintelwa ngokwembali. Iimeko zophawu lwelizwe ziye zandisa ukufikelela nokuchitha imiqobo.

Umntu Omnye, Umntu Omnye

Reynolds v. Sims (1964), iNkundla ePhakamileyo yathi isithi imimandla yemithetho mayifane nabemi phantsi koKhuselo olulinganayo luka-Claus. Lo "mntu omnye, ivoti" wasusa umgaqo osusiweyo ogqithisileyo owanika iindawo zasemaphandleni amandla angenakulinganiswa. Isigqibo esinyanzelekileyo sithetha ukutsala kwakhona amaphondo kwiminyaka elishumi esekelwe kugcino-lwazi lobalo.

IMithetho yeQumrhu neMithetho yokuBona

UMthetho weVoting Rights ka-1965 wavala ucalucalulo lobuhlanga ekuvoteni, kunye Shelby County v. Horer (2013) yawisa ilungiselelo elingundoqo elifuna amazwana athile ukuze afumane imvume karhulumente phambi kokutshintsha imithetho yokuvota. INkundla yaphikisa ukuba isicwangciso sokubhalisa saphelelwa lixesha. Esi sigqibo sakhokelela kwimiqathango entsha yokuvota kwamanye amazwe, ibangela ukuqhushumbisa okuqhubekayo ngemithetho ye-othothor, indawo yokuvala, kunye ne-gerrymanling.

  • Harper v. Virginia Board ye-ECT (1966): Irhafu yokurhoxisa ayihambelani.
  • Bush v. Gore [2000]: yaphela ingxelo yeFlorida kunyulo lomongameli, ibalaselisa indima yokhuseleko olulinganayo kubalo lwevoti.

Inkqubela Elindelekileyo: Ubulungisa Kwizaphuli - mthetho Nakuhambo Lwabemi

IziHlayiso zeMimiselo yesihlanu neyeshumi elinesine ziqinisekisa inkqubo efanelekileyo — ngaphambi kokuba urhulumente ahluthe umntu ubomi, inkululeko, okanye impahla.

Izilumkiso ze-Miranda kunye noNxulumano-lwesiqu

. UMenda v. Arizona (1966), iNkundla yacela ukuba amapolisa azise abakrokrele ngelungelo lawo lokuhlala ethule nokuba negqwetha ngexesha lokuncinwa kwegunya. Isigqibo esijoliswe ekukhuseleni ilungelo lokuHlaliswa kweSindululo sesihlanu nxamnye nokuzitshintsha. Ngoku isilumkiso se-famaria "Miranda" siye saba sisixhobo esiphambili sobupolishi, nangona iNkuNkundla iye yavumela ukuba kukhuseleke uluntu kwaye kuncinwe.

Ukuzinikela kwabemi kunye nokhuseleko lwemveli

Inkqubo elindelekileyo iyasebenza nakumongo woluntu. Addington v. Texas [1997], iNkundla yagqiba kwelokuba ukuzinikela kwabemi kwisifo sengqondo kufuna ubungqina obucacileyo nobeyiselayo, umgangatho ophezulu kunokokuba ubhekiso phambili. Goldberg v. Kelly [1970]), iNkubonelo ibambe ukuba abamkeli bentlalo-ntle banelungelo lokuva ngokucacileyo phambi kokuba inzuzo iphelisiwe. La matyala abonisa ukuba inkqubo efunekayo ayingobamangali nje.

Isiphelo: Amalungelo Amaxwebhu Aphilayo

Amatyala okuphawula ilizwe enza okungaphezulu kunokugqiba iimpikiswano; ayayichaza kwaye andise intsingiselo yamalungelo omntu ngamnye. Ukusuka ekuthetheni ngokukhululekileyo kwizikolo ukuya kwithuba lobumfiliba lobuzwe bamanani, imigaqo emiselwe kule mithetho iyaqhubeka ibumba umthetho waseMelika. Nangona kungekho lungelo lipheleleyo, indima yejaji ekukhuseleni inkululeko yomthetho-siseko ihlala ibalulekile. Ukuqonda la matyala anika abemi amandla okuxhasa amalungelo abo nokuqonda xa amalungelo abo esengozini. Njengoko ubugcisa obutsha kunye neengxaki zentlalo ziseza kuphinda zicelwe ukuchaza imida yenkululeko. Iinkundla zemali ezishicilo zinika isiseko sadlula, kodwa umsebenzi wokukhusela amalungelo ahlala ehleli angekagqibi.

[[UMTL:0] ukwenzela ukufunda ngokubhekele phaya ngomthetho womgaqo-siseko, Iziko lomgaqo-siseko wohlanga libonelela ngoovimba abalungileyo, kunye ne iSivumelwano saBami saseMerika [Iinkululeko zaBangasese Union[[[FLT:]] amaxwebhu aqhubekekayo amalungelo.]