Ukuqonda Isebe Lejaji Lorhulumente WaseUnited States

Isebe lejaji limi njengentsika elinganayo karhulumente karhulumente olawulayo kunye namasebe owiso-mthetho. Icandelo III elimiswe phantsi kweSiqendu soMgaqo-siseko, imbopheleleko yalo ephambili ibandakanya ukutolika imithetho karhulumente, ukuqinisekisa okusesikweni, nokucombulula iimbambano ezingokwasemthethweni. INkundla ePhakamileyo ihleli kwincopho yale nkqubo njengenkundla yokugqibela yesibheno kunye noyena utoliko wentsingiselo yemithetho-siseko. Ngokungafaniyo nesebe lowiso-mthetho elibhala imithetho okanye isebe elilawulayo eliyinyanzelayo, isebe lenkundla eligweba lihlola enoba imithetho nezenzo zalo ziyavumelana nemiGaqo-siseko ngokwaso. Oku kwahlula kwamandla kudala inkqubo yokuhlola nokulinganisela naliphi naliphi isebe elithintela abanye abantu. Inkundla ephakamileyo, ngemithetho yayo, ichaza imidalo yegunya likarhulumente neyodwa nekhusela amalungelo orhulumente ngabanye.

Ukwakhiwa Nokwakhiwa KweNkundla Ephakamileyo

INkundla ePhakamileyo ngoku inabagwebi abasithoba: iJaji enye ePhakamileyo kunye nabaJaji abasibhozo abaManyeneyo. Eli nani alisoloko lizinziswa. Umthetho weJadicary ka-1789 waseka iNkundla enamalungu amathandathu, kwaye iKhomishini yatshintsha inani eliqela ukutyhubela inkulungwane yeshumi elinethoba, ukusuka kumalungu amahlanu ukuya kwalishumi elinethoba. Ukususela ngo1869, inani lihleli kwithoba. Imithetho nganye iphethe ukumiselwa kwemimiselo yobomi bayo phantsi kweSigqeba III somGaqo-siseko, ethi igwebe ukuba abagwebi bephondo "ba ii-Oficio ababo ngexesha likaNombolo olulungileyo. Eli lungiselelo liqinisekisa ukuzimela ngokukhusela iinkundla zezopolitiko okanye uxinzelelo oluqhelekileyo. Ukususela ngo18699, iSente inokwenziwa kuphela yiNkulwane yeNkulwano yeNkundla ePhaka iMikhosi ePhakaltho, ebandakanya iSahlulel

Idinga neNkqutyana yokuQinisekisa kwiNkcukacha

Indlela eya kwiNkundla ePhakamileyo ibandakanya inkqubo engqongqo elungelelanisa ulawulo oluphezulu kunye negunya lowiso-mthetho. UMongameli ubeka umncomeli, ngokuqhelekileyo okhetha abantu abanomsebenzi osemthethweni ophezulu njengabagwebi, izifundiswa, okanye abasebenzi. Emva kokuchotshelwa kwemithetho, iKomiti yeNtlanga-mikhosi yeNtlalo yamatyala, iqhuba imigaqo ebanzi apho iingxoxo ezilula apho abantu abangenazo iimbono zolawulo, imigaqo edlulileyo, kunye notoliko lwemithetho-siseko. Ikomiti ngoko ivota enoba iyancomela ukuba ngabacutheli kwiNkuhlalo epheleleyo kusini. Ingxoxo yeBhunga nevoti yemithetho yeNkulwano epheleleyo, ifuna ukuba ingceleleke kakhulu ukuze ivunywe. Le nkqubo iye yakhula ngokunjalo, kungekho nto ijongeneyo engathi ngu-80% ye-Ageoment. Ukuqinisekiswa kwengxelo yembali ekwangokunje,

Okusesikweni Okuyintloko Nokusesikweni Okumanyeneyo

IJaji ePhakamileyo yeNkundla iphethe isikhundla esikhethekileyo kwisakhiwo seNkundla. Ngoxa iJaji ePhakamileyo inevoti enye kuphela kumatyala, efanayo neJaji nganye ehambelanayo, indima ithwala iimbopheleleko ezongezelelekileyo. IJaji Enkulu iyongamela iingxoxo zomlomo, ikhokela imisebenzi yolawulo lweNkundla, kwaye yabelana ngokubhaliweyo kweembono ezininzi xa ivota noninzi. Kwinkqubo yokugweba ebanzi, iSigwebi esiyintloko sihlalisa iNgqungquthela yeJaji yeUnited States, iqumrhu eliyintloko lemithetho-yo elawula iphondo. Abaquququzeli abasibhozo basebenzisanawo nabaGcineyo bobuGaqo-mthetho, benza inkundla yeNkuhlela ibe sisiko esisithoba esisithoba kwigunya elibekileyo. Inkundla nganye yezomthetho izisa isimo somntu ngamnye soqeqesho lwasemthethweni, amavandla nentanda - bulumko.

Imisebenzi yeCore yeNkundla Ephakamileyo

INkundla Ephakamileyo ifeza imisebenzi emininzi ebalulekileyo kwisebe eligwebayo eligcina umGaqo-siseko ulawula nokungaguquguquki okusemthethweni kulo lonke elaseUnited States.

Impinda yezeejaji

Uhlolo lwezomthetho lumele esona sixhobo sinamandla seNkundla Ephakamileyo. Simiselwe kwityala elingu-1803 . [Madison], eli gunya livumela iNkundla ukuba ivakalise imithetho, izenzo zolawulo, nezigqibo ezisezantsi zenkundla. IJaji ePhakamileyo uJohn Marshall's kulo mbandela osunguliweyo [kulo tyala 1803]. [Umthetho obalulekileyo we-FLT] ugunyazisa iphondo nomsebenzi wesebe ukuchaza oko kukuthi ityala. [Ngenxathelekelele ngokweeno kwemithetho yenkundla yowiso yezomthetho], iNkulawula iqinisekisa ukuba umthetho odluliswe yiBhunga nezenzo ezihambelana zihambelana nezimfuno zomgaqo-siseko somthetho, imithetho yemithetho, nemithetho yasekuhlaleni. [R.3] [4]

Igunya lokufumana ingcebiso

INkundla Ephakamileyo isebenza njengenkundla yamatyala okugqibela akhutshwa phantsi komthetho wesizwe. Inkundla efumana amatyala aphantsi karhulumente okanye iinkundla eziphakamileyo zingacela iNkundla ePhakamileyo ukuba iphinde ihlole ityala elikwindawo ephakamileyo ngetyala le-certiari. Le Nkundla ifumana malunga nama-7 000 ukuya kuma-8000 izicelo kodwa inika ingxubusho epheleleyo kumatyala amalunga nama-80% aphantsi. Inkundla evuma amatyala abalulekileyo abandakanya umGaqo-siseko, ukungqubana kweenkundla eziphantsi kwimibandela ebalulekileyo esemthethweni, okanye kwimicimbi ebalulekileyo yesizwe. Le nkqubo ilawula, elawulwa ngu "umthetho wesine," ithetha ukuba abagwebi abane bafanele bavote amatyala ngaphambi kokuba bafumane ukuqwalaliswa ngokupheleleyo. Iinkundla ezi-matyala kufuneka zibonise ukuba kuqwalaselwe ityala elifanelekileyo kwinkundla eenkundla ezithe-Certari.

Ukumisela Isiqalo Sesibophelelo

Imfundiso ye ingumzekelo we-decis, ethetha "ukuma ngokwezinto ezigqitywe," yenza isiseko sesigqibo seNkundla Ephakamileyo. Xa iNkundla ilawula kwimbambano esemthethweni, ukuba ilawula ibe ngumzekelo onyanzelisayo kuzo zonke iinkundla ezisezantsi kwisixokelelwano solawulo lwamazwe. Lo mgaqo unika ukungaguquguquki nokuthelekelela kumthetho waseMelika. Inkundla ePhakamileyo ilandela imikhombo yayo kwiimeko ezininzi kodwa ngamanye amaxesha ibhukuxanduva xa iimeko zithethelela ukuphuma kwemithetho yangaphambili. Imizekelo iquka [[FLT:] Brown] v. [[FFLT] V][3] [5], izigwebo ezithenjiweyo], iimeko ezithenjiweyo, ezithenjiweyo, ezithenjiweyo, uguqulo oluluvo oluthe guqukileyo.[5]

Ukusombulula isigqeba sophazamiso kunye neempikiswano zeSizwe soManyano

UMgaqo-siseko unika isalathisi somthetho wantlandlolo kwinkundla ebandakanya iimbambano phakathi kwamatyala. Oku kuthetha ukuba amatyala anjalo aqala ngqo kwiNkundla ePhakamileyo kunokuba aqhubeke kwiinkundla ezisezantsi. Inkundla isombulula iingxabano ngamalungelo amanzi, imida, neminye imibandela ephakathi kwesizwe. Imizekelo ephawulekayo iquka Kansas v. Colorado [ngelungelo lamanzi phakathi koMlambo oPhakamileyo kunye noMkhosi weArkansas, New Jersey v.[FLT][FLT]

Ityala Elibalaseleyo LeNkundla YaseMerika Elaphembelela Imbali

Izigqibo zeNkundla ePhakamileyo ziye zachaphazela kakhulu ibutho lamaMelika kwiindidi ezininzi zobomi besizwe. Ukuqonda la matyala kukhanyisa indlela amandla eNkundla achaza ngayo iziphumo zehlabathi lokwenene.

Amalungelo asekuhlaleni nokhuseleko olulinganayo

Inkundla ePhakamileyo yadlala zombini iindima ezintle nezimbi kumalungelo abantu kulo lonke imbali yaseMelika. DDred Scott v. Sandford (1857) ngokuxhaphakileyo ikholelwa ukuba ama-Afrikan Angenakuba ngabemi, isigqibo esapheliswa kamva yimfazwe yamakhaya. [kule nkulungwane yamashumi amabini, iNkundla yaba yinqwelo-ndlela yokuqhubela phambili amalungelo abantu. [[FLT:]] Brown v.[FLT][FLT] [56]] [196] [196] kunye neSicwangciso esisemthethweni seSikolo savakalisa ukuba ukungavumelani i--- semthethweni i-Cexelotle ukhuseleko olulinganayodwayokungagqibele. [FF] [196], ukuvunywa kwemiqatha yomtshato.[19]

Ukukhulula Kwabantu Ngamnye Namalungelo Abo Bangabodwa

INkundla iqaphele ukhuseleko lomgaqo-siseko olwahlukeneyo lwezobucala kunye nozimele. Griswold v.Connecticut (65) yamisela ilungelo lomgaqo-siseko lokufumana imvume yobuqu kumongo wezibini ezitshatileyo. Roe v. [[FLT][FLT][12][12] [73]] [7773]) olu cwangciso lwemfihlo ekusheleni ukukhupha isisu, nangona kamva iNkundleko yasilahla eso sigqibo [[[FLT:] v. Jackson's Organization’s Health Health [202] [2], ibuyisela umthetho wokuqhomgezo kumazwe amayeza aqhelekileyo, [FLD] kunye nokusetyenziswa kook-okthe-ose, ukuphembeleka kobucala lokuzinzo oluqhelekileyo, ukusetyenziswa koomposiso loncedo lwe-othelela, ukusetyenziswa kwe-othelela, ukuqinisekisa, ukuqinisekisa, ukuqinisekisa

Ulawulo lwamandla omanyano nolorhwebo uClaus

INkundla ePhakamileyo itolike amandla eBhunga phantsi koMbutho kaChwebiso uClaus, kwaye ezi nkcazelo ziye zatshintsha ngokuhamba kwexesha. Wickard v. Filburn (1942)) ubukhulu becala amandla orhwebo lwamazwe okulawula ingqolowa ekhula ngenxa yokusetyenziswa kwabantu. [Amashumi eminyaka, lo mbono wamazwe axhasa umthetho wemithetho karhulumente osuka kumalungelo abantu, [FLT] [2] owawalela ucalulo kwimiqathango kawonke wonke. [[FLT] kutshanje], [[FLT] v.[5].[5] I-Emperevostiki ye-ok) kunye [impereactrences translate] yegunya elitheyonke.[4] Umbango wolawulo oluthe kMkhosi wolawulo lwamazwe, u-onke, umbalelwa ngumthetho othe kralelwa yi-odwa.[194]

Ityala Lokuqala LeNkundla Ephakamileyo Neembopheleleko Ezikhethekileyo

Ngapha koko kusebenza kwayo, iNkundla ePhakamileyo isebenzisa igunya lokuqala kwiindidi ezithile zamatyala. Inqaku III lomGaqo-siseko linika igunya leNkundla loqobo kwi "Iindawo ezichaphazela amanxusa, abanye abaPhathiswa bakawonke-wonke kunye nabo bakwilizwe eliya kuba liLungu." iNkundla ilawula okokuqala kuma-17. Le miba ibandakanya amalungelo abalulekileyo njengamanzi kumazwe angasentshona, imida, nemibuzo yezoburhulumente. Inkundla imisela iimeko ezibandakanya ii-ofisi zamanye amazwe, kunye nemicimbi ethile ebandakanya oomatilamganga mazwe angaphandle, kunye nemithetho ethile eqokelelwahlukeneyo ekwakhe ibekwe phambi komthetho omthetho okanye amazwe angaphandle.

Indlela IOperate yeNkundla ePhakamileyo: Igama, Iinkqubo, kunye nokwenziwa kwesigqibo

IGama leNkundla ePhakamileyo liqala ngoMvulo wokuqala ngo-Oktobha kwaye lisebenza ngokuqhelekileyo ekupheleni kukaJuni okanye ekuqaleni kukaJulayi. Eli gama lahlulwe ngokweeveki ezimbini ezitshintshileyo: iiveki ezimbini zempikiswano zomlomo zilandelwa ziiveki ezimbini zemposiso yokubhala uluvo kunye nokuqwalasela ityala. Ngexesha lengxoxo, iNkundla ivakala malunga namatyala amabini okanye amathathu ngemini, ngalinye lifumana iyure enye yengxoxo. Icala ngalinye lifumana imizuzu engamashumi amathathu ukunikela ityala lalo, nangona abagwebi besoloko bephazamisana ngemibuzo. Umbuzo ukutyhila imicimbi yetyala kwaye ngokufuthi ubonisa utyekelo lwalo kwimibandela.

Inkqubo yeNgqungquthela nolongezo

Emva kokuphikisana ngomlomo, abagwebi badibana kwingqungquthela yabucala ukuze baxubushe kunye nabovote kwiimeko. Kuphela ngabagwebi abaya kwezi nkomfa, kungekho mithetho, abasebenzi, okanye intetho ebhaliweyo ekhoyo. IJaji Enkulu ikhokela ingxubusho, ishwankathela ityala ngalinye kwaye inike imbono eqinileyo. Ngokudibanisa iimbono zabo ngokuyalela umva kolawulo lwaphezulu. Emva kwengxoxo, abachongi ngokuphikisayo, nowona mthetheli-mthetho mncinci uvota kuqala. Le nkqubo ithintela abagwebi abaphezulu abangenwa yivoti yabo abakhulu. Uninzi lumisela iziphumo, kunye nezibopho zigcina isigqibo senkundla esezantsi xa inkundla iphinda ityala okanye xa inkundla ifumana amalungu asibhozo kuphela.

Ukubhala Uluvo Nokungavumelani

Xa iJaji ePhakamileyo ivota neMithetho ePhakamileyo, banika uluvo umsebenzi wokubhala kumalungisa amaninzi. Ukuba iJaji eSikhulu iyaphikisana, iSekela eliPhezulu lisesona Sigwebi siphambili kwinkoliso yenza eso sabelo. IJaji eyabelweyo iphumeza uluvo lokuchaza ingqiqo yeNkundla nemigaqo esemthethweni. Iimbono ezijikelezayo phakathi kwamagumbi, ngokunika izimvo, ukucela utshintsho, okanye ukuchaza ukuba baza kuthelelela uluvo. Le nkqubo yokuyila nokuquluzela ingxubuliso isenokuthatha iiveki okanye iinyanga. Abagwebi abayabeli banokubhala iimbono ezivumelana neziphumo kodwa bachaze imbono eyahlukileyo, okanye baphikisa iimbono zabo. Ukurhoxa beva iinkundla ezingokomfatho, iziphumo zezomthetho kunye nezomthetho. Ukuchasana kwezomthetho ezingoondo zika-Olsleymerson, uHarlan, kunye neembono zeNku.

Ulwalamano LweNkundla Ephakamileyo Namasebe

INkundla ePhakamileyo isebenza kwinkqubo yokuhlola kunye nolungelelwano oluchaza ulwalamano lwayo neNkundla kunye noMongameli. Ngelixesha iNkundla ingawuphelisa umthetho njengongamiselwanga, iKhomishini igcina impembelelo ebalulekileyo kwinkundla yamagunya ayo asemthethweni. IKhomishini imisela ubungakanani beNkundla, isakhiwo, kunye nolawulo lomthetho. Ngoxa iNkundla ayikhange iwuguqule umlinganiselo weNkundla ukususela ngo1869, amandla okulawula anika igunya eliqinileyo leNkquluko. Ingqungquthela ikwalawula uqingqo-mali kwaye isenokucebisa ukurhoxiswa kwemithetho yeNkundla. UMongameli uphembelela iNkundla ngezigqibo kodwa iswele ulawulo olungqalileyo kubomi bayo kunye nokukhuselwa koondlwano.

Ukunyanzelwa Kwezigqibo Zenkundla Ephakamileyo

INkundla ePhakamileyo ayinayo indlela yayo yokusebenza kwaye ixhomekeke kwisebe eliphetheyo ukuzalisekisa izigqibo zalo. Oku kuxhomekeka kubangela uxinezeleko olunokwenzeka xa umphathi-mikhosi engavumi nezigqibo zeNkundla. Kubikwa ukuba uMongameli uAndrew Jackson uthe [] [[FLT] v. Georgia[ [1832]], "John Marshall], "Usenze isigqibo sakhe; ngoku masenze isigqibo sakhe. UMongameli Richard Nixon uyavuma [FLT] iUnited States v.[FLT] [[FLT]] [127]] [127])) afuna ukuba akhulule iitepithi zamanzi, akhokelela ekunikezeleni kwakhe izigwebo. Ukuchasa kwenkundla yezomthetho, kodwa kuxhomekeke ekuthobeleni kwemithetho yenkundla esesikweni, kodwa kugunyaza nakwe ezinye iimiyalelo zenkundla zomthetho.

Imbambano Zangexesha Elidlulileyo Nolwalathiso LweNkundla Ephakamileyo

Inkundla ePhakamileyo yale mihla ijongene nemibuzo entsonkothileyo engokwasemthethweni ebangelwa lutshintsho lobugcisa, izithethe ezigqwethekileyo zentlalo, kunye nokuthatyathwa kweepolitiki. Iityala ezibandakanya izicwangciso zobucukubhede zolwazi lwezentlalo zivavanya imida yokuthetha ngokukhululekileyo ngexesha lamanani. Imibuzo ephathelele ubuntlola obungeyonyaniso, ubugocigoci bogcino-lwazi, kunye nobugcisa bokuhlola inkqenkqeza phambili inkundla kufuneka ithethe ngemiba ekhoyo. Inkundla yeNkundla yezomthetho ibonakalisa impikiswano eqhubekayo emalunga namalungelo okuvota, imali yezempempempe, inkululeko yonqulo, kunye negunya lesebe lolawulo.

Umthetho weziko nomthetho

Ireyithingi yeNkundla ePhakamileyo ezivunyiweyo ziye zatshintsha-tshintsha ngokuphawulekayo kwiminyaka yakutshanje, ngokunyuka kokuchaphazeleka kwemimandla ephakathi kwabantu kwicandelo. Inkqubo yokuqinisekisa abagwebi bakutshanje, idibene nezigqibo eziphezulu kwimibandela yokwahlukana kwezobupolitika, ifak ’ isandla kwingqiqo yokuba iNkundla ngokwayo iye yazinza. Uphando loluvo lukawonke wonke lubonisa ukuphelelwa kwentembelo kwiNkundla ePhakamileyo, iMelikane ngokujonga inkqubo ngokujonga phambili ngee-grafiki. Ukuthembeka kweNkundla kuxhomekeke ekuvumeni ekuhleni indima yayo njengongathathi-nxaxheba kwentsingiselo yemithetho. Amatyala aye athetha ngezi mbopheleleko zawo ngokugxininisa kuqikelelo olusemthethweni nakwizithethe zezomthetho, nangona iingxoxo ezingobulumko nakutolika inkqubo yokuchaza indlela yokulawula i-data kuhlala kusembindimbane kumsebenzi weNkuNkundla.

Utshintsho Neenguqu Zeziko

Izindululo ezahlukeneyo zotshintsho lweNkundla Ephakamileyo ziye zafumana ingqalelo kwintetho yesidlangalala. Iinkqubo ziquka imiqathango esetyenziswa ngokwendlela yokulawula, ikhowudi yemigaqo yokuziphatha esetyenziswayo, iimfuno zokubonisana ezifunekayo kwizigqibo zobugcwabi, kunye nokwandisa ubungakanani beNkundla. Ukulawula imiqathango yexesha kuya kufuna ukubuyiselwa komgaqo-siseko ngaphandle kokuba kufezwe ngeenguqu eziphumele ngokuphumelelayo ukwenza ubume obuphezulu bobulungisa. Amanye amazwe asebenzisa unyulo lwezinyulo okanye ukhetho lweenkundla eziphezulu, anike ezinye iimodeli zendlela. Inkundla yamkela ikhowudi esesikweni yehambo ngo-2023 ekuphenduleni imibandela yemilinganiselo yokuziphatha, nangona ikhowudi ingenaluvo oluzimeleyo. Naluphi naluphi utshintsho olubalulekileyo lweNkulungisa ityala olukhoyo phakathi kwesebe eligweba nelo lobuswa nolwalamano nomnye amasebe orhulumente.

Isiphelo: Ukubaluleka Okuhlala Kuhleli KweNkundla Ephakamileyo

Inkundla ePhakamileyo imi njengesakhiwo esahlukileyo kulawulo lwamaMerika, isebenzisa igunya elingaqhelekanga ngokugweba ngengqiqo kunokuba inyanzele unyulo. Igunya layo lokuchaza umGaqo-siseko, ukuhlola izenzo zowiso-mthetho kunye nezolawulo, imisela isalathisi esisisivumelwano sawo onke amagunya enkundla esizwe esenza ibe ngumgcini-siseko wokugqibela wemigaqo-siseko. Izigqibo zeNkundla zibumba ubomi bamaMelika ngeendlela ezisisiseko, ukusukela ekukhuseleni amalungelo omntu ngamnye ukuchaza imida yegunya likarhulumente. Njengoko iingxoxo zesizwe zivela imiqathangokwasemthethweni, iNkundla ePhakamileyo iza kuqhubeka isenza impumelelo indima yayo engoko ingumgaqo-siseko xa isenza ulungelelaniso lwezomGaqo-siseko, ezisekelwe kwisithethe esingokwasemthethweni nesasemthethweni kwizithethe zomthetho-mthetho-mthetho-siseko, ezimele ziphembele kwizithethe zexesha eliqhelekileyo, ezifunayo, eziMelika kunye nezizukulwana zeminyaka ezazisayo. Ukuqonda imisebenzi yeNkubhishophu, kunye neenjongo zembali, kunye neentsingiselo zezo

Ukufundwa okubhekele phaya kwimbali yeNkundla Ephakamileyo kunye nemisebenzi, jonga kwiwebhsayithi yeNkundla ePhakamileyo enika izimvo, iimpikiswano zomlomo, nolwazi malunga neenkqubo zeNkundla. Ezinye izibonelelo ezigunyazisiweyo ziquka [ iprojekthi ye- kwiKholeji yoMthetho yaseChicago, enika ityala elibanzi kunye nokushicilela isandi, kunye neFFOLT ye-FLT], enika ulwazi lwembali malunga nomthetho-Janyulute-judiary.