Yiyiphi Inkqubo Efanelekileyo?

Imothelela inkqubo yomgaqo-siseko isiqinisekiso sokuba urhulumente akanakuhlutha namnye umntu ubomi, inkululeko, okanye impahla ngaphandle kokuqala alandele iinkqubo ezisesikweni nezimiselwe ngokomthetho. Lo mgaqo umiselwe kwiMithetho-nkqubo yesihlanu neyeshumi elinesine, uqinisekisa ukuba urhulumente usebenze ngokusemthethweni, ngokucaceyo, kwaye ngokuhlonela amalungelo omntu ngamnye. Kodwa inkqubo efunekayo ayingomthetho omnye; yingqokelela yokhuseleko oluyilwayo lonke icandelo lesenzo sikarhulumente, ukusuka ekumiseni kwezithuthi ukuya kwityala letyala letyala.

Ukuyiqonda ngokupheleleyo inkqubo efunekayo, umntu kufuneka ajonge kumasebe ayo amabini ahlukeneyo: inkqubo efunekayo nenkqubo encinci efunekayo. Nganye ifeza injongo eyahlukileyo kodwa kunye yenza icwecwe lomthetho-siseko waseMelika.

Inkqubo eQhelekileyo

Inkqubo yenkqubo efunekayo ye-"FLT:0] ibhekisa kwi indlela zenzo zikarhulumente. Phambi kokuba urhulumente asuse ubomi bomntu, inkululeko, okanye impahla, kufuneka inike izinto zokumkhusela ezincinci. Ezi ziquka:

  • Iphepha-litye – Umntu kufuneka axelelwe oko urhulumente aceba ukukwenza nokuba kutheni.
  • [[UMTL:0] Lithuba lokuva [ – Umntu kufuneka abe nethuba elinentsingiselo lokunikela icala labo lebali, elidla ngokuba semlingweni okanye ekuvinyweni.
  • [[UMTL:0] Umenzi wesigqibo ongakhethi buso – Ijaji okanye umphathi akanako ukuba nesiphumo sobuqu.
  • [[UMTL:0] Ilungelo lokunikela ubungqina nokubiza amangqina [ – Umntu anganika ubungqina kunye nokucel ’ umngeni ubungqina bukarhulumente.
  • Ilungelo kwigqwetha – Kwimeko ezininzi, ukumela okusemthethweni kuyafuneka ukuqinisekisa inkqubo elungileyo.

Inkundla ePhakamileyo yase-U.S. yabeka uvavanyo lwangoku lwendlela ezifunekayo kwi Mathews v. Elditridge [1997]. Iinkundla ziqwalasela oothunywashe abathathu: umdla wobuqu ochaphazelekayo, ubungozi bokungafunwa kwempazamo phantsi kwemigaqo yangoku, nomdla karhulumente, kuquka ixabiso kunye nomthwalo wolawulo. Le ndlela ithambileyo ithetha ukuba inkqubo efunekayo ayingomlinganiselo omnye-onke; okusesikweni kwiingenelo zentlalo-ntlalo kusenokuhluka koko kufunekayo kwityala lolwaphulo-mthetho.

Inkqubo elindelekileyo

Inkqubo esezantsi efunekayo imalunga ne yoko urhulumente angakwenza, kungakhathaliseki ukuba ziziphi iinkqubo ezisetyenziswayo. Ikhusela amalungelo athile asisiseko ekungeneleni korhulumente, nokuba urhulumente ulandela iinkqubo ezigqibeleleyo. La malungelo asekelwe kwingcamango yenkululeko ngokwayo kwaye awadweliswanga ngokucacileyo kumGaqo-siseko. Inkundla ePhakamileyo ichonge inani lenkululeko ekhuselweyo, kuquka:

  • [[NTL: 0] Ilungelo lokutshata – Iqwalaselwe .Obergefell v. Hodges (2015], ebambe ukuba izibini ezikwangokobuxhume zinelungelo elingundoqo lokutshata.
  • [[NTL:0] Ilungelo lokukhulisa nokunyamekela abantwana bakabani – iDityaniswe kwi Troxel v. Granville [2000], ilinganisela ukungenelela kwemeko kwizigqibo zabazali.
  • Ilungelo lokufihla imbilini [ – iquka ilungelo lokusebenzisa ukuthintela ukukhawula ([[FT:2]Griswold v.Connecticut, 1965]) kunye nokwenza izigqibo malunga nenkululeko yomzimba.
  • Ilungelo lokwala unyango lwezamayeza – Iqwalaselwe Shashington v. Harper [1990] kunye namatyala alandelayo abandakanya inkathalo yobomi.

Inkqubo esisiseko esisiseko yenye yezona ndawo zididayo zomthetho-siseko kuba kufuneka abagwebi bachaze oko kuthethwa “yimvume”. Abahlalutyi bathi ivumela iinkundla ukuba zivelise amalungelo angafunyanwanga embhalo. Abaxhasi bathi kubalulekile ukukhusela abantu kwizenzo zorhulumente ezingekho sikweni ezingenakubanjwa yimithetho yesithethe kuphela.

Isizathu Sokuba Imilinganiselo Efanelekileyo Ibaluleke Kwinkululeko Yomntu Ngamnye

Inkqubo elindelekileyo asiyongcamango engokwasemthethweni; sisixhobo esingundoqo sokukhusela urhulumente ophathwe ngokuphanga. Ngaphandle kwayo, urhulumente unokubamba, afake entolongweni, okanye athabathe impahla ngaphandle kokuva, isaziso, okanye ithuba lokuzikhusela. Izizathu ezisebenzisekayo zokuzigcina inkqubo efanelekileyo zisekelwe kumthetho:

  • ichaza izenzo zolawulo ezizizo zoburhulumente - Akukho mphathi ongaphezulu kwemithetho. Inkqubo elindelekileyo inyanzela ukuba zonke iziko nenkundla zilandele iinkqubo ezizinzileyo nezaziwayo.
  • ikhusela amalungelo omntu ngamnye – kwanaxa urhulumente eqhuba ngeentshukumisa ezilungileyo, inkqubo efunekayo iqinisekisa ukuba amalungelo omntu omangalelweyo okanye ochaphazelekayo ayahlonelwa.
  • iprotes ukuthemba uwonke- wonke [ – abantu badla ngokwamkela iziphumo ezisemthethweni xa bebona ukuba inkqubo ilungile, icace, kwaye inika wonke umntu ilizwi.
  • luchaphazele ucalucalulo kunye nokuxhatshazwa [ – ngokufuna abenzi besigqibo abangakhethiyo namathuba okubhena, inkqubo efunekayo inciphisa ifuthe lekhethe, ukunganyaniseki, okanye iimpazamo.

Kwidemokhrasi, ezi zikhuseli zingokwahlula inkqubo yomthetho kwenye yamandla alula. Njengoko iNkundla ePhakamileyo yathethayo kwi- I-Aint Anti-Fascist Committee ye-Fouters . McGrath (1951), inkqubo efunekayo “iyinkqubo epheleleyo yaloo mithetho yomthetho echaza amandla karhulumente okuchaphazela abantu ngabanye.”

Imvelaphi Yembali Yenkqubo Efanele Ilandelwe

Ingcamango yokuba urhulumente umele alandele iinkqubo ezifanelekileyo yavela mandulo, kodwa indlela azenza ngayo ezi mini yaqalisa ukuphuhliswa kweenkulungwane zenkqubela yezomthetho yaseNgilani neyaseMerika. Ukuqonda ukuba imbali inceda kucace isizathu sokuba inkqubo efanelekileyo isekelwe ngokunzulu kwinkqubo yokusesikweni yaseMerika.

IMagna Carta (1215)

Imbonakaliso yamandulo edumileyo yenkqubo elungileyo ivela kwiSahluko 39 seMagna Carta, esatyiwe nguKumkani John eRunnymede. Yavakalisa ukuba akukho mntu okhululekileyo onokuthi afakwe entolongweni, agwetywe, okanye agxothwe “ngaphandle komgwebo osemthethweni woontanga bakhe okanye umthetho welizwe.” Eli binzana – “umthetho welizwe” – waba ngukhokho wenkqubo efunekayo. Ngexa uMagna Carta ekuqaleni wayesebenza kuphela kwizikhulu, umgaqo walo ongundoqo womthetho ongaphezulu kolawulo lwelizwe.

IBhili yamaNgesi Yamalungelo Nezibheno Zobupolisa

Emva kweenkulungwane zomlo phakathi kwePalamente neSihlalo, iBhili yamaNgesi yamaLungelo (1689) yabethelela ingcamango yokuba ukumkani akanakuyimisa imithetho okanye amise iinkundla ezikhethekileyo ngaphandle kwenkqubo eqhelekileyo. Abenzi bama-komane baseMerika babezithwala ezi zithethe ngaphaya kweAtlantiki. Imithetho-siseko yamaKoloni yayisoloko iquka isiqinisekiso sokuba abemi babeza kunandipha amalungelo afanayo namadoda angamaNgesi, kuquka nokukhuselwa komthetho oqhelekileyo.

IsiHlayiso Sesihlanu Neseshumi Eline

Xa umGaqo-siseko wase-U.S. wabhaliswa, wawungenayo inkqubo ecacileyo. Uhlaziyo lwesihlanu, olwagunyaziswa ngowe-1791, lwatshintsha ukuba: “Akukho mntu... uya kuphulukana nobomi, inkululeko, okanye impahla, ngaphandle kwenkqubo efanelekileyo yomthetho.” Kodwa ngenxa yokuba iBhili yamaLungelo ekuqaleni yayisebenza kurhulumente karhulumente karhulumente, amazwe ayenokuwutyeshela lo mqobo. Lo msantsalo ude uMphetho weshumi elinesine wagunyaziswa emva kwemfazwe kaNovesithi ngowe-1868. Inkqubo yawo efunekayo yandisa imfuneko efanayo kurhulumente wasekuhlaleni: “... kwaye akukho Rhulumente inokuthi ihluthe nabani nabani na umntu wobomi, inkululeko, okanye impahla, ngaphandle kwenkqubo yomthetho.”

Kwinkulungwane elandelayo, iNkundla Ephakamileyo yasebenzisa igalelo elifanelekileyo lenkqubo ye 144 IsiHlaziyo se- elikwindawo ekhethekileyo , inkoliso yeBhili yamaLungelo ngokuchasene namazwe. Umzekelo, ilungelo lokunika isiluleko ([[] Gideon v. Wainright[[FLT:]], 1963]), ilungelo elichasene nolwahlulo ngokwalo ([FLT:] [[FLT]] i-alloy v. Hogan[FL:5], 1964, kunye kwicala elisekunene lenkxhulumaniso ([FL:6]], i-Point.v[FT]6], yafumana zonke iinkundla zemithetho elungele ukubotshelelwa. [FT]]6]

Indlela Efanelekileyo Yokuqhelisela

Imigaqo efunekayo ayimiselwanga; ilungelelaniswa neentlobo ezahlukeneyo zetyala. Ukukhuselwa komntu kuxhomekeke ekubeni zikwindawo yesizwe, yezaphuli-mthetho okanye yezolawulo, nokuba kuyintoni oku monakalo.

Imodeli Elindelekileyo Komzekelo Wangaphakathi

Kwisuti zoluntu – ezibandakanya iimpikiswano phakathi kwamaqela angawabo okanye phakathi komntu norhulumente ngempahla okanye ngemali – inkqubo efunekayo iqinisekisa:

  • Inqaku elibalulekileyo letyala – Ummangalelwa makanikezelwe ngokusemthethweni ngezicelo kunye nesikhalazo, echaza izityholo kunye nenkundla apho ityala liza kuvakala khona.
  • Lithuba lokuphendula – Ummangalelwa unexesha elicwangcisiweyo loku bhala impendulo kwaye anikele uguqulelo lwawo lwezibakala.
  • igunyazisa umelo olusemthethweni – Ngoxa uHlaziyo lweSithandathu lweMimiselo yeMimiselo lungasebenzi kwiimeko zasekuhlaleni, iinkundla zisoloko zivumela amagqwetha ukuba aqeshe amagqwetha, kwaye kwezinye iziganeko ezinzulu (njengokukhunjulwa kwabazali), urhulumente usenokufuneka ukulungiselela igqwetha phantsi kwenkqubo efanelekileyo.
  • Imfihlelo[ - omabini amacala angatshintsha amaxwebhu, athathe, aqokelele ubungqina phambi kwetyala ukunqanda izinto ezimangalisayo.
  • [[UMTHETHO: 0] A ityala elisesikweni phambi komgwebi ongakhethi camagushelo – Ukuba ityala liya kuvavanywa, ityala kufuneka liqhutywe ngaphandle kwekhethe.

Umzekeliso ongundoqo ngu [[Nkundla:0] Sniach v. Imali Yeentsapho. (11969). Wisconsin wavumela umboleki-mali ukuba ahlawule ityala phambi kokuba afumane nayiphi na ityala. INkundla Ephakamileyo yathi le ngxaki ifuna ukuba umntu obolekwe imali angabi nathuba lokucela umngeni imali eninzi.

Inkqubela Efanelekileyo Kumatyala Ezaphuli - mthetho

Ngenxa yokuba amatyala olwaphulo-mthetho anokuphumela ekuvalelweni okanye ekulahlekelweni yinkululeko – ukukhuselwa kwenkqubo efunekayo kuphezulu apha. UmGaqo-siseko udwelisa amalungelo amaninzi akhethekileyo asebenzayo kwimicimbi yolwaphulo-mthetho, kwaye iNkundla ePhakamileyo iye yawachaza ngesisa. Ukhuseleko olubalulekileyo luquka:

  • Ilungelo lokuthula – IsiHlanzi sesihlanu sikhusela abamangalelwa ekunyanzelweni ukuba banikezele ngokwabo ubungqina. Amapolisa kufuneka anike imanda[ izilumkiso phambi koncinwano lwegunya (] imanda v. Arizona, 1966]).
  • Ilungelo lokuvavanywa kukawonke-wonke nokukhawulezisa – IsiHlanuso seSithandathu sifuna ukuba uvavanyo luvuleke kuwonke wonke kwaye lungenzeki ngaphandle kokulibazisa okungekho ngqiqweni.
  • Ilungelo kwigqwetha – Kusukela Gedeon v. Wainright (1963), urhulumente kufuneka anikezele igqwetha nakweliphi na ityala elikwi-arhente ejongene netyala letyala letyala. Kamva imithetho yandisa oku kukwaphulel' ii-'asethi ezithwele isivakalisi sentolongo ([[FLT:]]] Argisterer v. Hamlin, 1972).
  • Ilungelo lokujongana namangqina – Abakhuseli banganqumla-i-examine abantu abangqina ngokuchasene nabo ( Pointer v. Texas, 1965).
  • [[UMTL:0] Ilungelo lokubiza amangqina nokunikela ukhuselo – amandla eSubpoena aqinisekisa abamangalelwayo ukuba bangazisa ubungqina enkundleni.
  • Ukhuseleko kwingozi ephindwe kabini kunye nocalucalulo lwako ngokwakho – Akukho mntu unokulingwa kabini ngenxa yetyala elinye, kwaye akukho namnye onyanzeleka ukuba avume.

Inkundla ePhakamileyo yanika ukhuseleko olufanelekileyo kulutsha kwiGault (1967). Phambi kweli tyala, iinkundla zabantwana zazinokubopha abantu abaselula ngaphandle kwetyala elisemthethweni, ukuchotshelwa, okanye amagqwetha. INkundla yabambelela kwisigqibo sokuba “alukho uHlumelo lweshumi elinesine loMphetho-manqa nakuLungelo lwamalungelo abantu abadala kuphela,” yaza yayalela ukuba ulutsha olukwisingxhwanguquphelo, icebiso, ilungelo lokumangalelana namangqina, kunye nelungelo lokuzichasa ngokwalo.

Inkqubela elindelekileyo kwiiNtengo zoLawulo

Amaziko karhulumente enza izigqibo ezininzi ezichaphazela abantu – ukuphelisa iinzuzo zentlalo-ntle, ukuphelisa ilayisensi yokuqhuba, ukususa imvume yokuqhuba, okanye ukuphelisa umqeshwa kawonke-wonke. Inkqubo efunekayo iyasebenza nalapha, kodwa iinkqubo ezizo zahluka. AmaMathes v. IEldridge ukulinganisela ukuvavanywa (ukukhankanywa kwangaphambili) kwaveliswa kulawulo: umamkeli wezokhuseleko weNtlalo ucebe wacel'elwa ityala lokuphelisa iinzuzo ngaphandle kokuva kwangaphambili. Inkundla yagweba ukuba ukuva okucacileyo phambi kwesigqibo akusoloko kuyimfuneko ukuba umbutho unike ezinye izikhuseli, njengoko kubhaliwe, ithuba lokunikezela ubungqina obubhaliweyo, kunye nesigqibo esipheleleyo emva kwesigqibo sokuphulaphula.

Sekunjalo, isiseko – isaziso, ithuba lokuthetha ngombandela wakho, kunye nomenzi wesigqibo ongakhethi buso – uhlala ubalulekile nakuyiphi na inkqubo yolawulo enokuthi inyanzelise umntu ukuba angabi namdla wenkululeko okanye impahla.

Iingxaki Zexesha Elizayo

Phezu kwako nje ukusetyenziswa kwasemthethweni, inkqubo efunekayo ijongene neengcinezelo ezinzulu kuMerika wanamhlanje.

Ukuxilonga nokuxilonga okugqithiseleyo

Uninzi lwamatyala olwaphulo-mthetho – ngaphezu kwama-95% – akaze aye e-caleni. Baphelela ekufakeni izibongozo. Ngoxa ukucenga kungekho ngokwemvelo okungekho sigqeba, kungayiphelisa inkqubo efunekayo. Abameli basoloko bemangalela ityala phantsi kwesongelo sesigwebo eside kakhulu ekuchotshelweni, into eyaziwa ngokuba “sisohlwayo senkundla.” Xa amagqwetha akhuselayo ejamelene nokucinezelwa kwetyala kunye nobuncwane obulinganiselweyo, abamangalelwa bangalwa ngaphandle kokuqonda ngokupheleleyo amalungelo abo okanye ubungqina obunxamnye nabo. Ilungelo lokugweba liba liba liba libi nako xa inkqubo yokugweba ifuna umntu agwetywe.

Umelo olusemthethweni olwaneleyo

Isithembiso se Gideon v. Wainwright asifezeki ngokupheleleyo. Ii-ofisi ezininzi zokhuselo lukawonke-wonke zithwala amakhulu eemeko ngegqwetha ngalinye, zishiya ixesha elincinane lokuphanda, ukuphendula amangqina, okanye ukuthatha iziganeko zefayile. Ingxelo yonyaka ka-2014 ye American Bar Association yafumanisa ukuba “iinkqubo zokhuselo ezisengxakini kulo lonke ilizwe zisengxakini.” Ngaphandle kwesiluleko esifanelekileyo, abamangalelwa abanakuwancomela ngokunelisa amalungelo abo enkqubo, afana nokuvavanya okungavumelekanga okanye ukunikela ubungqina obungagunyazi.

IBhaas Nocalucalulo Ezinkundleni

Uphando lubonisa ukuba iinqobo zobuhlanga kunye nezizwe ezincinane zijongene nokuphathwa krwada kwiqonga ngalinye lenkqubo yokugweba, ukusuka ekumeni nasekufuneni ukugwetywa. Ucalucalulo olupheleleyo phakathi kwabatshutshisi, abagwebi, kunye nabagwebi lungaphembelela izigqibo ezichasene nesithembiso sokusesikweni okulinganayo. Umzekelo, abamangalelwa abaNsundu badla ngokuvalelwa ngaphambi kwenkundla, nto leyo eyenza kube nzima ukulungiselela ukukhusela nokunyusa ukuqiniseka. Inkqubo elindelekileyo ifuna abaqululeki-zi bobulungisa abangakhethi buso kodwa ijongela phantsi kweso sizathu.

Ingeniso Nemfihlo Yamanani

Ubugcisa obutsha bunika urhulumente amandla angazange abonwe ngaphambili okufumana abantu. INkundla ePhakamileyo iqalisile ukutolika inkqubo efunekayo kunye noMphetho-Mgaqo wesine ukubhekisa kugcino-lwazi lwamanani. Carplate v. United States [2018]], iNkundla yagqiba kwelokuba amapolisa afune isiqinisekiso sokufumana iingxelo zendawo yeseli, ngenxa yokuba abantu balindele ukuba bafumane imfihlo kwimibutho yabo ngexesha elithile. Kodwa eminye imiba emininzi ayiphenduli: ibhaqo-data eqokelelwa ziinkampani ezibucala ezisebenzisana ngokugcinwa komthetho, kwaye zisenza izigqibo ze-auto kwimimiselo yemithetho-alvolence kunye nese.

Ukungena nokuQhubelana

Iinkqubo zokuhlalisa zizinto zoburhulumente kunokuba zibe zezolwaphulo-mthetho, ngoko ke ukhuseleko oluninzi lomgaqo-siseko alusebenzi ngokuzenzekelayo. Abantu abahlala ezindaweni ezingekho mthethweni bangavalelwa iinyanga ngaphandle komanyano, kwaye abaqinisekiswanga ukuba ligqwetha elihlawulwa ngurhulumente. INkundla Ephakamileyo ikholelwa ukuba iNkqubo eThengisiweyo ka-Claus ikhusela bonke abantu eUnited States, kungakhathaliseki ukuba banesikhundla sabumi, kodwa inyaniso kukuba iinkundla zokufuduka zijongene neenkonzo ezinkulu zelizwe ezinokukhokelela ekususweni ngokuphosakeleyo.

Isiphelo: Ukukhusela Inkqubo Efanelekileyo

Imodeli ayiyonkqubo yokuzinqumla inkqubo. Ixhomekeke kubagwebi abalumkileyo, amagqwetha anobuchule, abemi abazileyo, kunye nezithethe zezobupolitika ezixabisa inkululeko yokusebenza. Umgaqo wokuba akukho mntu unokuhluthwa ubomi, inkululeko, okanye impahla engenayo imigaqo elungileyo ihlala ingundoqo wenkqubo yokulawula. Kubafundi nabafundisi, ukuqonda inkqubo efunekayo akuyonkqubo yemfundo efundisayo nje kuphela ukulwa nolwaphulo-mthetho, ukunyanzelisa, ukunyanzelisa, nokuxhasa isithembiso sikarhulumente obotshelelwe ngumthetho. Imfazwe engokwembali echasene namandla ongekho ngqiqweledu, ukusuka kwiNkuhlela yeNkundla yaseWarrenberger, ibonisa ukuba inkqubo efanelekileyo ayimele ikhuselwe, njengokuba isoloko ikhuselekile igosameleke kakhulu inkululeko.

[[NTLT: 0] Ukufunda okubhekele phaya, bona ICornell Information Information yeCetal yenkqubo eyiyo, i-Oyez unobumba weMatews v. Elditridge, ne Iziko lengxelo zeJaji kwiimeko ezinzima ezifanelekileyo..[FLT]