Imfundiso Yendaleko Eyaguqula Ukukhululeka Kwabantu BaseMerika

Kuyo yonke imbali engokwasemthethweni yaseMerika, imbalwa imigaqo eye yaba nempembelelo enzulu kukhuseleko lwamalungelo omntu ngamnye kunemfundiso yokubandakanya. Le nkqubo yomgaqo-siseko, esekelwe kuMphetho-siseko weshumi elinesine, ngokusisiseko ilungise ulwalamano phakathi koorhulumente belizwe nenkululeko eqinisekiswe yiBhili yamaLungelo. Abameli benkululeko yasekuhlaleni, ukuqondana nokuqulunqwa kubalulekile kuba inika isiseko esisemthethweni sokuchasa umgangatho worhulumente ekukhuselweni komzikelo olungundoqo.

Ngaphambi kokungeniswa, iBhili yamaLungelo yasebenza kuphela kurhulumente wesizwe, ishiya urhulumente ekhululeke kakhulu ekuthinteleni intetho, ekuqhubeni iphulo elingaqiqiyo, okanye ekhanyeni inkqubo efanelekileyo. Imfundiso yokuququzelela yatshintsha konke oko ngokwenza inkoliso yamaLungelo anyanzeliswayo nxamnye norhulumente wasekuhlaleni. Olu tshintsho aluzange lwenzeke ngobusuku obubodwa; lwavela ngothotho lwezigqibo zeNkundla ePhakamileyo equka inkulungwane yama-20. Isiphumo singumhlaba osemthethweni apho amalungelo asisiseko akhuselwa ngokulingana ngakumbi kuwo onke amazwe angamashumi amahlanu.

Isiseko somgaqo-siseko soHlulo

Isiseko esisemthethweni sokuququzelela sikwiSindululo seshumi elinesine soMphetho-Mgaqo, esagunyaziswa ngo-1868. I-Account Procession Claus yalo ithi akukho mbuso "uza kukhupha nawuphi na umntu wobomi, inkululeko, okanye impahla, ngaphandle kwenkqubo efanelekileyo yomthetho" kangangamashumi eminyaka, abaphengululi nabagwebi babephikisana ukuba le ngxelo yayiza kusetyenziswa kuyo yonke iBhili yamaLungelo kumaphondo (ukuqulunqiniswa okuzinzisa) okanye kuphela loo malungelo athathwa "umthetho wokuzikhethela inkululeko" (ukukhetha).

INkundla ePhakamileyo ekugqibeleni yamkela igalelo elikhethayo, ukusebenzisa amalungelo elinye ngexesha ngetyala ngesiqu. Uvavanyo lokuba ilungelo liqukiwe lubuza ukuba "lisekelwe kwingcamango yenkululeko eyayalelwayo" okanye "isekelwe ngokunzulu kwimbali nesithethe sohlanga". Le ndlela ivumela iNkundla ukuba yandise ukhuseleko ngokuthe ngcembe xa ithetha ngemithetho yoburhulumente kunye nenkululeko yorhulumente.

IJaji Benjamin Cardozo yachaza umgangatho obalulekileyo kwiPalko v. Connecticut[[FL:1] (1937], ichaza ukuba amanye amalungelo abaluleke kakhulu kangangokuba ukwaphula kwawo amalungelo kuya kuba "kukusetyenziswa kwenkululeko engundoqo engundoqo kwingcamango yenkululeko ecwangcisiweyo" Le nkqubo ikhokelwa amashumi eminyaka ekwaneemeko zokudibanisa kwaye iyaqhubeka inempembelelo namhlanje.

Indima yenkqubo elindelekileyo ka-Claus

I-Bactive Process Claus ye-14th Amendment isebenza njengesithuthi apho iNkundla ePhakamileyo isebenzisa khona uNkundla yaMalungelo kwiphondo. Ulwimi lukaClaus (_"nolunye ulwimi loMbuso uya kuhlutha nabani na ubomi, inkululeko, okanye impahla, ngaphandle kwenkqubo efunekayo yomthetho""""" itolikiwe ukuquka amalungelo abalulekileyo kwinkululeko nezobulungisa. Le nkcazelo ayizange isebenzise iBhili-Bhili yamaLungelo kwiphondo le-14Drandmentation; abachanileyo baphikisa ngelithi abaxhasi boMpanzi weSinyulo se-14th Amendulo babengazimiselanga iBhili yamaLungelo. Noko ke, izigqibo zeNkundla ziye zaqinisekisa ukuba ukuqukwa komgaqo oqululweyo, zivelise isiseko sokhuseleko olufanayo lwemithetho-mGography kumazwe kulo lonke ilizwe.

Ukuphuhliswa kwembali yoNkcubeko

Kwinkulungwane yokuqala phantsi komGaqo-siseko, iBhili yamaLungelo yayisebenza kurhulumente worhulumente worhulumente. Inkundla ePhakamileyo yakuqinisekisa oku ku- Barron v. Baltimore (1833), apho iJaji ePhakamileyo uJohn Marshall yayisithi uMphengululo wesihlanu wawungasebenzi kumaphondo. Oku kwakuthetha ukuba amaphondo anokuchasana noko sikujonga ngoku kuyimfuneko, okungawaqwalaselwayo amalungelo asisiseko, inkululeko yonqulo, kunye nokukhuselwa ekuphengululeni okungekho ngqiqwele.

Ukubekwa kweMimiselo yeshumi elinesine yowe-1868 kwavelisa amathuba amatsha, kodwa ekuqaleni iNkundla yayimathidala ukuyisebenzisa ukunyanzelisa iBhili yamaLungelo achasene namazwe.

INtloko Yokuqala: Gitlow v. New York (1925)

Ityala eliphawulayo elavula ucango lokuqukunjelwa ngurhulumente lalingu Gitlow v. New York (1925). Benjamin Gitlow wayengumxhasi wezobusoshiyali ovalelwe phantsi kwemithetho yezaphuli-mthetho yaseNew York yokukhupha isibhengezo sokubhukuqwa kukarhulumente. UGitlow waphikisa ukuba ukuvumisa kwakhe umgaqo wokuQala kwakwa kweMithelela ekunene ekuthetheni ngenkululeko. Inkundla ePhakamileyo yaqinisekisa ukuqiniseka kwakhe, ukufumana ukuba i-dvoctacy ayizange ikhuselwe, kodwa kwinkundla yetyala yenza isahlulele esibalulekileyo: "ngokuba sinokuthi sicinge ukuba inkululeko yokuthetha kunye neyo yokushicilela i-'ikhuselwa ngokukhuselwa koMphetho-manziswano koMkhosi we-Brijikelo woMkhosi nge-onke-onke-onke-onke, ikhuselwe kumalungelo angundoqo afanelekileyo eenziwe kwinkqubo ye-e-enze yomthetho wokuqala ye-Genegede."

Ngoxa uGitlow engazange aphumelele kwityala lakhe, umgaqo womthetho awumiselayo walungisa indlela kangangamashumi eminyaka yoloyiso lwenkululeko yabemi. Ityala labonisa ukuba ukhuseleko lokuKhuthazwa koMgaqo-nkqubo wokuqala wamadlangalala, kanye ikhaka lokukhusela ukuphangwa kukarhulumente, ngoku lungasetyenziswa nxamnye norhulumente kunye norhulumente wasekuhlaleni.

I-Incorporation Hops Hover: I-1930s-1960s

Emva GEWWW, iNkundla ngokuthe ngcembe yaquka iBhili yamaLungelo. Nearb v. Minnesota [1931], iNkundla yaquka inkululeko yokucofa, ukubetha umthetho wesizwe ovumela ukuvinjelwa kweencwadi. [FLT:] [FLT]] [4] DEVONGE v. Oregon [197]) yaquka intlanganiso elungileyo yoxolo. Cantell. Connet v[FLT:] [FLT] [12:] [1940]

Iminyaka yee1960, phantsi kweJaji enkulu i-Earl Warren, yangqina ulwandiso oluphawulekayo lokuququzelelwa. Inkundla yaseWarren yayisebenza ngokukhethekileyo ekusebenziseni ukhuseleko lolwaphulo-mthetho kumaphondo. Mapp v. Ohio [1961]) yaquka umgaqo-Sine Solawulo Lomthetho Owenziweyo weSine, efuna ukuba iinkundla zikarhulumente zikhuphe ubungqina obufunyenwe kuphengululo olungekho ngqiqweqweni kunye nokuxhwa. [[FLT:] [FLT]] Gedeon v. Wainright[ [1963]] Ilungelo elidumileyo elichasene noMbethotho, elikhuthaza ukunikela iziluleko, eliqinisekisa ukuba abatshutshisi bemisholo-gqhinga lokulwa. [FT]

Ezinye izinto ezibalulekileyo ziquka Klopefer v. umntla weCarolina (1967) ekulungeleni ukuvavanywa ngokukhawuleza, Duncan v. Louisiana [1968]]) ekulungeleni ukuvavanywa kwetyala elibini lolwaphulo-mthetho, kwaye Bhenv. Maryland [1969] [1] ukukhusela kwingozi ephindwe kabini.

Ityala Eliyintloko Elaguqula Imfundiso Yokwahluka

Ukuqonda amatyala aphawulekayo akha imfundiso ebandakanyayo kubalulekile nakweyiphi na inkxaso yenkululeko yasekuhlaleni. I tafile elandelayo ishwankathela izigqibo ezibalulekileyo:

Amalungelo Okuhlaziywa Kokuqala

  • Gitrow v. New York (1925) – intetho yenkululeko isetyenziswa kumazwe
  • Near v. Minnesota (1931)[[FL:1] – Inkululeko yokucofa ifakiwe
  • De Jonge v. Oregon (1937)[[FL:1] – Asekunene kwendibano kufakiwe
  • Cantwell v. Connecticut (1940) – Ukuqhelisela unqulo ngokukhululekileyo kufakiwe
  • Everson v. Ibhodi yemfundo (1947) – Ukumiswa kuka Claus

Amalungelo OMthetho Wesine

  • Mapp v. Ohio (1961) – Umthetho weExclussion
  • Wolf v. Colorado (1949) – uphendlo olunobuchule kunye nokuxhuzula kusetyenziswe ekunene

Amalungelo esihlanu oHlaziyo

  • [[FLT: 0] IChicago, Burlington & Quincy Railroad v. Chicago (1897) – uthatha Claus ofakiweyo
  • Malloy v. Hogan (1964) – Ilungelo nxamnye noknano olusetyenziswayo
  • Benton v. Maryland (1 969)[[FL:1] – ukhuseleko oluphindwe kabini lwengozi lusetyenzisiwe

Amalungelo Ohlaziyiweyo Esithandathu

  • Gideon v. Wainwright (1963) - Ekunene ukuya kwisiluleko esisetyenzisiweyo
  • Pointer v. Texas (65) – Ekunene ukuya kumangqina ajoliswe kuwo asetyenzisiweyo
  • Klopefer v. umNtla Carolina (1967) – Ekunene kuvavanyo olukhawulezayo olusetyenzisiweyo
  • Duncan v. Louisiana (1968) – Ekunene ukuya kwityala labachopheli-tyala lisetyenzisiweyo

Amalungelo Okuhlaziywa KwesiXhobo

  • Robinson v. Kalifoniya (1962) – Inkohlakalo nesohlwayo esingaqhelekanga esisetyenzisiweyo

Impembelelo Yemfundiso Kukukhululeka Kwabemi

Imfundiso yokubandakanya iye yaba sisixhobo esinamandla kubameli benkululeko yasekuhlaleni, inika isiseko esisemthethweni sokucel ’ umngeni imithetho nezenzo zikarhulumente ezichasene namalungelo omgaqo-siseko. Ngaphambi kokuba baququzelelwe, abameli kwakufuneka baxhomekeke ngokuyintloko kwimithetho-siseko nenkundla zikarhulumente, ngokufuthi ezinikela ukhuseleko olubuthathaka. Ukuhlahlela kwakha umgangatho wamalungelo osemthethweni wonke amarhulumente amele awuhlonele, ukuqinisekisa ukuba ummi waseMissississippi unandipha uKhuselo lweSine loMyezolo njengommi waseMassachusetts.

Oku kufana kuye kwangqineka kugxeka kwimimandla emininzi. Kummandla wezobulungisa, ukuququzelela okunyanzelekileyo kumazwe ukuba anike amagqwetha abamangalelwa, angabufumani bungqina obungekho mthethweni, kwaye anike izilumkiso ezicacileyo ngelungelo lokungathethi. Kummandla wokuthetha ngokukhululekileyo, ukuququzelela, kuye kwavumela imibutho yenkululeko yoluntu ukuba ivavanye imithetho yokwaphula umthetho nokukhusela amazwi aphikisayo. Kwinkululeko yonqulo, ukuququzelela ibangele ukuba kubekwe imithetho exhasa unqulo olunye ngaphezu kolunye okanye uxanduva lokholo.

Kwimibutho efana ne-American Liberties Union (ACLU) kunye neZiko lamaLungelo omGaqo-siseko, ukuququzelela imbumbulu yesiseko somGaqo-siseko zinika iimbumbulu ezizisa amatyala ngqo kwinkundla yesizwe phantsi kwama-42 U.S.C., umthetho ovumela abantu ukuba bamangalelwe amagosa esizwe ngenxa yokwaphulwa komgaqo-siseko. Eli cebo liye lasetyenziswa kumadabi e-arhente, ukuhla kwamalungelo amabanjwa, kunye nocelomngeni lokuhlola iinkqubo.

Ukunika amandla okulumkisa umgangatho weRhulumente

Ulwahlulo lukwanike abameli abasebenzayo kumgangatho wesizwe. Ngenxa yokuba iBhili yamaLungelo eququzelelwe imisela kuphela umgangatho omncinci, amatyala angaqhubekeka ngakumbi ekukhuseleni amalungelo phantsi komgaqo-siseko wawo. Iinkundla ezininzi zelizwe zitolike umgaqo-siseko wazo ophakamileyo ukuchaza ukukhusela okubanzi kuneBhili-Malungelo (a) esemthethweni eyaziwa ngokuba "yinkqubo entsha yolawulo lomthetho olawulayo." Incorporation idala inkqubo eqinileyo: umgangatho ophezulu wamalungelo kunye namandla okukhuselwa kwemeko karhulumente. Abameli abaninzi bangakhetha ngokucwangcisa ukusukela ukusukela ukuthethwa phantsi kolawulo okanye umthetho, kuxhomekeke ekunikeni inkxaso eyomeleleyo.

Ukomeleza Ulawulo Lwejaji

Imfundiso yokuququzelela inyuswe ngokuphawulekayo ukuvelela kwezenzo zetyala zikarhulumente. Ngoku iinkundla zoMasipala zihlolisisa iinkqubo zolwaphulo-mthetho zikarhulumente, intetho yorhulumente, kunye nezenzo zikarhulumente ezichaphazela inkululeko yonqulo. Oku kuvelela kuye kwenza oorhulumente baphendula ngakumbi kumGaqo-siseko kwaye kuye kwanceda ekupheliseni izenzo ezichasene namalungelo asisiseko. Ukukwazi ukuzisa amatyala enkundleni yephondo, kunye nokhuseleko lwazo oluzimeleyo nolunamandla ngakumbi, kuye kwaba luncedo olubalaseleyo kubameli benkululeko yabemi.

Ngoko, lo lwalathiso lwandisiwe luye lwabangela impenduka. Abahlalutyi baphikisa ngokuthi ukudibanisa ukukhutshwa kolawulo lukarhulumente kunye nokuvumela abagwebi besizwe ukuba bakhethe inkqubo yesibini yorhulumente. Abanye abagwebi, ngokuphawulekayo uClarence Thomas, baye bayibuza imfundiso ekhethayo ngokwayo, bephikisa ukubuyela ekuqondeni kwasekuqaleni ukuba iBhili yamaLungelo ayisebenzi kumazwe. Nangona ezi ziko ziququzelela zihlala zihleli zihleli zimiselwa kwaye zamkelwa ngokubanzi luluntu olusemthethweni.

Amalungelo Angenamiqathango Nekamva Lomanyano

Ngoxa inkoliso yeBhili yamaLungelo ekhusela isohlwayo ingenayo, iipokotho ezimbalwa azizange zifakwe. UHlaziyo lwesithathu ngokuchanekileyo namajoni akwikota angekasetyenziswa kumaphondo, nangona oku kungenxa yokuba ilungelo lokufumana uLwimi lokuHlaziya lwesihlanu linqabile. Ilungelo leNkundla yesihlanu lokuya kwinkundla ebalaseleyo yabachopheli-mvo alizange lifakwe, kwaye amaphondo ahlala ekhululekile ukusebenzisa ezinye iindlela zonyango ezifana nokuva kokuqala okanye ulwazi. Umthetho wesiXhobetho lweSinyusi seSibhoxo awuzange ufakwe ngokusemthethweni kwibhethlethi eninzi, nangona iNkundla ifake izikhuseli ezinxulumene nemigaqo ye-Creast Claus.

UHlaliso Lwesibini lwaphakamisa umbuzo othe xhaxhe kakhulu. Kangangamashumi eminyaka, iNkundla ePhakamileyo ayigqibanga ukuba ilungelo lokugcina nokuphatha izixhobo zisetyenziswe kumaphondo. Oku kwatshintsha McDonald v. Chicago (2010), xa iNkundla yafaka isiHlaliso sesibini, ibetha isivalo sompu wesandla seChicago. Isigqibo sasingu 5-4, ngokubhaliweyo kweJasti Samuel Alito kuninzi ukuba ilungelo lokuzimela ngokwalo idefense lingu "Xalumini lokuzisela ulawulo lohlanga lwenkululeko eyayalelwe."

Ikamva lokungeniswa lingabandakanya amalungelo angadweliswanga ngokucacileyo kwiBhili yamaLungelo. Umzekelo, ilungelo lokuzimela wedwa, elivunyiweyo kwi-Gilswald v. Connecticut [65] kwaye anwenwenwe [[[FLT:]] Roev. [[FLT]][3] [773]]) kunye [neenkqubo ephakathi kwe-[FLT]] [OGObergfell v. Hodges[ [20], ifumaneka kwi "UMFMFUM" yemibra" ka-Genesticeltivesssss' ye-'Sywork Clauscas. Le nkqubo isetyenziswa ngokwengqiqo eliqhelekileyo, kodwa ukuchaza iimvume eziqhelekileyo zentemplate.

Izicelo Ezisebenzisekayo Zabameli Namhlanje

Kubaxhasi benkululeko yabemi bale mihla, imfundiso yokuququzelela ihlala isisixhobo esiyimfuneko. Xa ucel ’ umngeni umthetho karhulumente othwele umthwalo wokuthetha ngokukhululekileyo okanye obeka izigwebo eziqatha, umbuzo wokuqala ngowokuba: Ngaba lo mthetho uyaphula umthetho ogunyazisiweyo? Ukuba kunjalo, ummeli ungazizisa ityala phantsi komthetho karhulumente, efuna isiqabu esikhawulezileyo kwinkundla karhulumente. Le ndlela ivumela abameli ukuba bagqithe kwiinkundla zikarhulumente ezinobutshaba baze baxhomekeke kwimiqathango yesizwe ephuhlisiwe.

Kwakhona ukurhwebelana kunceda amaphulo okudityaniswa kwetyala kwilizwe lonke. Iintlangano zingafaka iifayile ezinxulumene nokumangalelwa kwiimeko ezininzi, zixhomekeke kwimigaqo efanayo yomgaqo-siseko, ukucel ’ umngeni imisebenzi esasazekileyo efana nokukhutshwa kwe-ID, okanye imiqathango kumsebenzi wokuqhankqalaza. Ukufana kwamalungelo aqukiweyo kuvumela abameli ukuba baphuhlise iintsinga zemodeli neempikiswano ezisebenza ngokuzingisileyo ngaphaya komthetho.

Ngaphezu koko, ukuququzelela kuyaqhubeka kuvelisa imibuzo emitsha engokwasemthethweni. Iingxoxo zakutshanje ezingokwasemthethweni okuvalwa konyango lokuguqula abantu, imiqathango kwiimigangatho zezentlalo, kunye nobungakanani bokungakhululwa konqulo kwimithetho elwa nolwaphulo-mthetho yohlanga oluququzelelweyo, konke okuququzelela amalungelo okuQala Ulungiso. Indaleko yobugcisa ikwanyusa imiqathango ebandakanya, efana nokuba imiqathango yeSine soMphengululo ekuphengululweni kwemiqathango esetyenziswa kurhulumente wogcino-lwazi lwamanani okanye ekusetyenzisweni kwamapolisa.

Ukusebenza Kwimibutho Yomanyano

Ngoxa ukuququzelelwa kuqinisekisa umgangatho karhulumente, abameli kufuneka basebenzise ubuntlola boburhulumente. Amanye amalungelo afakwa ngokwenxalenye kuphela. Umzekelo, uLawulo lweSithandathu lweSindululo kumthetho ogwebayo lwafakwa kwityala lolwaphulo-mthetho [[FLT: 0]] . uLouisiana [1968], kodwa iNkundla ibambelele kwelokuba ilungelo alisebenzi kwityala elincinane eligwetywayo ngeenyanga ezintandathu okanye ngaphantsi koko entolongweni. Ngokufanayo, iGawulayo alizange liququlethwe kwityala lochotho kumatyala asekuhlaleni, iintsingiselo ingasebenzisa iinkqubo ezingagunyaziswanga kwimicimbi yamakhaya.

Ukongezelela, ukuqulunqwa kwamalungelo akuwufumani ngokuzenzekelayo umlinganiselo waloo malungelo. INkundla Ephakamileyo isoloko ichaza umlinganiselo wamalungelo owahlukileyo kumongo wemeko kummandla kunakumongo wesizwe. Umzekelo, ukukhuselwa koMphengululo Wokuqala wentetho yezorhwebo kunye nokuthethwa kwabasebenzi basekuhlaleni kusenokuba neenguqu ezahlukileyo xa kusetyenziswa kurhulumente nakoorhulumente basekuhlaleni. Abameli mabahlale behleli ngoku kwiinkcazelo ezisekelwe kwiNkundla.

Isiphelo: Ilifa Elihlala Lihleli Lokungakhulelwa

Imfundiso yokuqukunjelwa kwenkululeko yabemi baseMerika ngokusisiseko iguqule inkululeko yabemi, yandisa iBhili yamaLungelo ukusuka kukhuseleko lwamagunya karhulumente ukuya kwisiqinisekiso selizwe lonke senkululeko esisiseko. Kwinkulungwane yezogwebo zeNkundla ePhakamileyo, phantse zonke iimfanelo ezilunge ngqo kwishumi lokuqala ziye zenziwa ukuba zinyanzeliswe nxamnye namazwe. Le ndaleko esemthethweni iye yanika abameli inkxaso yoluntu ekucel ’ umngeni ingcinezelo karhulumente, ukukhusela iiyunithi ezimgangathi, kwaye igcina oorhulumente benoxanduva kuzo zonke iinqobo.

Ngelixesha iingxoxo ezimalunga nobungakanani obufanelekileyo bokubandakanya ziqhubeka, umgaqo wazo osisiseko − wokuba amalungelo athile asisiseko kangangokuba akukho rhulumente onokuthi awaphule `ahlala elilitye lomthetho-siseko waseMelika. Kumntu wonke obandakanyekileyo kumlo wenkululeko yasekuhlaleni, ukuqonda akuyonto nje izifundo; kuyimfuneko esebenzayo ukuphumelela ekufundiseni. Le mfundiso inika amagama asemthethweni kunye nezixhobo zomgaqo-siseko ukukhusela inkululeko yokuthetha, inkululeko yonqulo, inkqubo efanelekileyo, kunye nokulingana kokusesikweni kwingingqi nganye yesizwe.

Njengoko kuvela imingeni emitsha, ukusuka kukuhlolwa kwamanani ukuya kwiingcamango ezigqwethekileyo zobuqu, ngokungathandabuzekiyo isiseko sokuququzelela siza kuvavanywa kwaye sicocwe. Kodwa indima yaso esisiseko ekukhuseleni inkululeko yomntu ngamnye nxamnye norhulumente ayinakuncitshiswa. Imfundiso yokubandakanya imele njengesivumelwano kumandla ahlalayo omGaqo-siseko ukuqhelanisa nokukhusela amalungelo abo bonke abantu baseMerika, kungakhathaliseki ukuba bahlala phi naphi.

ukuqhubekeka kofundo olunzulu olungokwembali oluphuhliswayo, bona iBhili yamaLungelo kwi-webhsayithi yogcino-lwazi yeSizwe. Ukuntywiliselwa okunzulu kuMphetho we 1450 kunye nesicelo sayo, jongana [FLT][FLT:]] iMithetho-MTHEtho Engaveliyo evela kwithala leencwadi leeNkquluko zolawulo[[FLT:][FLT:][5]].[FLT:][FLT][FLT:][FFULT]][FFFFF:]][FFLT]]][12]