Ukuqonda Ukwahlulwa: Urhulumente uphikisana noMgaqo-siseko weNkqubo yoMgaqo-siseko waseUnited States

Ulwalamano phakathi korhulumente nolawulo lukarhulumente luyintsika esisiseko yenkqubo yomthetho waseUnited States. Kubafundi, abahlohli, nakumntu nabani na ofuna ukuqonda indlela okusebenza ngayo okusesikweni kwamaMelika, ukuqonda ukuba ngumgangatho ophi osingatha imicimbi ethile engokwasemthethweni. UmGaqo-siseko wase-U.S. kunye neenkulungwane zokutolikwa kwezomthetho, kusekwa inkqubo yenkundla edityanisiweyo apho urhulumente kunye neenkundla zesizwe ngamnye zinegunya elahlukileyo kodwa ngamanye amaxesha elingenalo. Eli nqaku linikela uphando olubanzi lokwahlula phakathi korhulumente nolawulo, lichaza amandla awo, iimbopheleleko, kunye nemigaqo yomGaqo-siseko eziwalawulayo.

Yintoni Isohlwayo? Isiseko Segunya Lenkundla

I-Julistiation ibhekisele kwigunya lenkundla ukuva nokugqiba ityala. E-United States, igunya lombuso lahlulwe phakathi kweenkundla zikarhulumente norhulumente, ngalinye elinendawo nemilinganiselo elinayo ethathwe kuMgaqo-siseko, imimiselo yorhulumente, kunye nomthetho-siseko. Kukho imiqathango emibini engundoqo ekulawuleni: igunya elilawulayo lolawulo [iiiinkundla] [iiiinkundla]] (igunya lenkundla lodidi loburhulumente [inkundla]] [i-ofisi yenkundla] elawulayo lomthetho [i-FLT]]] [i-alllective mental syntial ments, i-arekhorive imimiselo egunya eligunyasiweyo okanye yemithetho yorhulumente. Iinkundla zelizwe zomthetho zokwahlukene, zinokuva nayiphi nayiphi nayiphi nayiphi na enye ityala ebekekileyo.

UHlaliso lweNkqutyana lweSigqibo seSizwe seshumi kuMgaqo-siseko wase-U.S. luqinisa olu lwahlulo ngokugcina kumagunya angaphathiswanga urhulumente worhulumente. Ngenxa yoko, iinkundla zeli lizwe zisingatha ingxuba-ngxwaba eninzi engokwasemthethweni kwilizwe, ukusuka ekuphathweni kweenqwelo-mafutha ukuya ekudibaniseni iimbambano nentsapho. Ukuqonda ukuba yiyiphi inkqubo yenkundla enamandla okuva ityala linyathelo lokuqala ekuhambiseleni phambili kwemeko esemthethweni yaseMerika.

Isigwebo soManyano: Igunya leeNkundla zeSizwe

Ulawulo lomanyano lunegunya leenkundla zikarhulumente lokuva amatyala abandakanya imithetho karhulumente, umGaqo-siseko wase-U.S., okanye iimbambano phakathi kwamazwe okanye abemi bamazwe ahlukeneyo. Ulawulo lweenkundla zephondo luchazwa ngokuyintloko kwiGatya III lomGaqo-siseko kwaye lucaciswa ngokubhekele phaya yiNgqungquthela. Iinkundla zoMasipala ziinkundla ezilawula igunya elilinganiselweyo, intsingiselo yokuba zingava kuphela amatyala awela phakathi komnye wemiqathango echazwe ngumGaqo-siseko okanye imimiselo karhulumente. Imimandla engundoqo yolawulo lwamazwe iquka okulandelayo.

Isigqibo sombuzo womanyano

Ulawulo lomanyano lweSindululo soMgaqo-siseko ukhona xa "ivela phantsi kwe" umGaqo-siseko wase-U.S., umthetho wesizwe, okanye isivumelwano se-United States. Esi sisiseko esicacileyo segunya lenkundla yephondo. Umzekelo, sithi, ukuyekwa kwaphula amalungelo eSindululo sokuqala sokukhulula intetho, ukuvavanya ukumiswa komgaqo-siseko wemithetho yesizwe, okanye ukuxambulisana kwamalungelo abantu phantsi kwemithetho yamalungelo orhulumente efana neSihloko samaSihlalo sika-Orini ka-19649. Lo ngumbuzo wesizwe wonke okhoyo. Umbuzo karhulumente kufuneka uvele ebusweni bombhisho-mthetho-mthetho owe-Phothi-transfo ophambili; akukho nto yaneleyo yokuba ukhuselo lorhulumente lunyuswe kamva. Lo mthetho uqinisekisa ukuba iinkundla zikarhulumente zivelvale iinkundla zombuso apho umlomo zithetha ngomgaqo-wodwa.

Ukusetyenziswa Kwamaqela Ahlukahlukeneyo

Ukulawula imimandla eyahlukeneyo kuvumela iinkundla zezolawulo zephondo ukuba ziphulaphule amatyala phakathi kwabemi basemaphondo ahlukeneyo (okanye phakathi kommi wase-U.S. kunye nommi wasemzini) xa inani lempikiswano lingaphezulu lee-$75 000, inkxalabo kunye neendleko ezipheleleyo. Injongo yokulawula kolwahluka-hlukeneyo kukunikezela i-fraum yobundindindindinding kwiphondo elohlukeneyo, ukuphepha ubugcwala kwiinkundla zelizwe. Ityala linokusekelwa ngokupheleleyo kumthetho wesizwe, kodwa lisekho kwinkundla yolawulo yephondo ukuba amaqela ahlukeneyo kwaye umqobo wemali uyafikelelwa. Imfuno epheleleyo i-mali iyafuneka, oko kuthetha ukuba akukho mmi-fazamfola-mfolo-mfolo-mfono-mfono-mfonomo-mfonye njengaye-mthetheli. Ukuba ngummi wetyala likarhulumente olawulwa ngurhulumente kunye nelungu leshishini elikhulu.[5]

Isebe Eliphetheyo neMaritime Disciption

Isebe eliphethe iinqanawa kunye nomthetho waselwandle ugquma amatyala abandakanya ukuqhuba inqanawa nokuthumela izinto kumanzi anokusetyenziswa kwi-United States, kuquka iilwandlekazi, imilambo, amachibi, nemijelo yamanzi. Olu lawulo lunwebeka kwimicimbi enjengezivumelwano zolwandle (umz., izivumelwano zokuthumela imikhumbi), ii-torts ezenzeka kumanzi anokufumaneka (umz., ukungqubana, iingozi zobuqu), kunye nemibandela enxulumene nokusindiswa, ukusetyenziswa kwezixhobo, kunye neendawo zokulala elwandle. Iinkundla zomkhosi wamanzi zinemithetho ekhethekileyo epheleleyo kwiimeko zorhwebo, ngelixa iinkundla zikarhulumente zinokuva ezinye ngaphantsi kwe "intambo ezifanele" i-Rotive", ezivumela umgaqo womthetho oqhelekileyo. Iimeko ze-Algentivential zilawulwa yimithetho ye-proccual, kodwa umthetho osezantsi womthetho womthetho womthetho womthetho womthetho okhoyo womhlaba kunye nowongamelelweyo.

Ukukhuthuzwa Kwemali

Iinkundla zomanyano zinegunya elipheleleyo kumatyala okuwa. IBhankiptcy Code yeSithili seSidibi se-U.S. inika isiseko esibanzi kubantu kunye namashishini abangakwazi ukuwahlawula amatyala abo ukuze bafumane isiqalo esitsha ngokuwabulala okanye ngokuphinda-phinda. Amatyala ebhanki agcinwa kwiinkundla ezirhwebiwayo zemali, eziziinkundla zephondo lephondo le-U.S. Imithetho igubungela yonke impahla yababolentengi, ithetha ngokuchasene netyala, kwaye ityala elinxulumene nokuwa kwemali. Ityala leBhankipricy linokubandakanye imibandela entsonkothileyo yomthetho wempahla, izivumelwano zemali, izivumelwano ezisoloko idityaniswe nomthetho ozenzekelayo. Inkundla yezoshishino zemali, ingumbutho yemali enamandla kulawulo lolawulo lorhulumente lolawulo lolawulo lolawulo lwemali.

Amatyala Aguqula IUnited States Njengeqela

Iinkundla zomanyano zikwanegunya kumatyala apho urhulumente waseUnited States eliqela. Oku kuquka ukumangalelwa kwabezolwaphulo-mthetho ngenxa yokwaphulwa komthetho karhulumente (umz., ukurhwebelana ngeziyobisi, ukubhaxa irhafu, ukwebiwa kwempahla karhulumente) kunye namatyala apho urhulumente emangalelwa okanye emangalelwa. Iinkundla ze-Federal Tort Apects zivumela abantu ukuba bangene kurhulumente ngokwezomthetho ngenxa yee-toliki yemiqathango yomthetho (umz. Ngokungaphezulu, amatyala avavanywayo amasebe karhulumente (umz., phantsi kweNkundla yangaphambili ye-Oficile) e-mthetho yephondo. Iinkundla zesizwe ezimanyeneyongamela i-Overentil zikwasingatha imicimbi ebandakanya ii-ofisini, oorhulumente, nee-console, kunye nee-ogcutmentalties, njengemistriteins (eyayayaya kanye kwinkundla yeNkundla yeNkundla yesizwe).

ISityholo Sesizwe: IGunya eliPhakathi leeNkundla

Ulawulo lwezorhulumente lubandakanya igunya leenkundla zikarhulumente ukuva amatyala abandakanya imithetho karhulumente kunye nemicimbi engagcinelwanga iinkundla zelifa lemveli. Iinkundla zeli lizwe ziinkundla zolawulo jikelele, intsingiselo yokuba zingava phantse naliphi na ityala elingangeniyo kwigunya elipheleleyo leenkundla zephondo. Urhulumente ngamnye unenkqubo yakhe yenkundla, edla ngokusekwa neenkundla zamatyala, kunye nenkundla ephakamileyo yephondo. Ulawulo lwephondo lugubungela uludwe olubanzi lwemibandakanyeke kubomi babemi.

Iimpikiswano ezinxulumeneyo nomthetho wobushishini

Iinkundla ezininzi zephondo zisingatha iimbambano zezivumelwano, kuquka ukwaphulwa kwezivumelwano zokuthengiswa kweempahla, iinkonzo, umhlaba, kunye nomsebenzi. Amashishini asoloko ethetha ngokuchanabeka kwesivumelwano, ukuqhatha, nokhuphiswano olungekho sesikweni kwiinkundla zikarhulumente. Ngoxa ezinye iingxoxo zoshishino zisenokubandakanya imibuzo karhulumente (umz., ukuqhawe kwemali ekhohliweyo phantsi komthetho wesizwe), uninzi lweziko lorhwebo lusekelwe kumthetho oqhelekileyo okanye kuMthetho weSiko seFraccity, oye wamkelwa phantse kuwo onke amagunya.

Umthetho Wentsapho Ubalulekile

Umthetho wentsapho phantse ululawulo olupheleleyo. Iinkundla zeli lizwe zisingatha uqhawulo-mtshato, ukwahlukana okusemthethweni, ukugcinwa kwabantwana kunye nokutyelelwa, inkxaso yabantwana, inkxaso yomtshato (i-antion), ukukhuliselwa komntwana, ukukhuliswa, kunye neenguqu zegama. Iinkundla zoManyano-mikhosi azinalo igunya lomthetho-mthetho-siseko njengentsapho, nangona ngamanye amaxesha zinokuthetha ngemibandela enxulumene nokuwa kwamalungelo ngokwezimali, iingenelo lorhulumente, okanye igunya lokwahlukana. I-FONTC Childbody Jurisdiction and Enfoctmentmentment (UCJEA) noMthetho weNtsosapho Sosalo Serce Act (US) kunye ne-USentstatection Actmentment

Impahla Nomthetho Wesini

Impikiswano malunga nezakhiwo kunye nempahla yomntu siqu iwela phantsi kolawulo lwezwe. Oku kuquka izinto ezifana neempikiswano zolawulo, izihlomelo, iimfazwe zolawulo, ulawulo kunye neendawo ezisebenzisa imimiselo, inkxwaleko, kunye neempikiswano zemida. Iinkundla zelizwe zichaza imithetho yempahla kunye neemeko zezenzo, iirentente, kunye nokuthembeka. Ngoxa eminye imiba yempahla ibandakanya imiba karhulumente (umz., ummandla ophambili phantsi koLawulo lweFind Amend-console), ummandla wemini-yokungamela amalungelo empahla uphethwe ziinkundla zikarhulumente.

Umthetho Wakwaphula Umthetho

Uninzi lwamatyala olwaphulo-mthetho luye lwavela kwiinkundla zikarhulumente. Urhulumente ngamnye unemithetho yakhe yokugweba echaza ulwaphulo-mthetho (kusukela kwizenzo eziphosakeleyo ezinjengokuba izinto ezincinane kumacala okubulala) kunye nesohlwayo. Amagqwetha esithili okanye abatshutshisi bephondo bazisa izityholo ngenxa yesizwe. Ulwaphulo-mthetho oluninzi, ubundlobongela, ubusela, amatyala eziyobisi, kunye nokuphenduliswa kwemida yezomthetho ombuso. Isenzo esifanayo sokuchasa umthetho karhulumente nesohlwayo sibekwe kwinkundla yomthetho (umz. ibhanki); amatyala anjalo angowo onke abandakanya imicimbi karhulumente, njengolwaphulo-mthetho omthetho omthetho omthetho, ukurhoxisa iziyobisi, ukurhwebelana kwemali, ukurhwaphiswa kwemali ebhanki, ukurhwa, ukurhwanyuswa kwemizwa kwetyala okuqhelekileyo ngetyala elinye (igconstatist) kunye netyala elingumthetho omthetho ongowona urhulumente ongombqeqelwayo.

Umthetho we Cheyi

I-tort ithi: “Iziphakamiso zetort ezidala umonakalo okanye ukulahlekelwa kwemeko-mthetho. Ngokuyintloko, amatyala okwenzakala komntu, ukusetyenziswa kwemveliso, ityala lokutyhafisa, ukungakhathali, kunye nenkathazo zibekwa kwiinkundla zikarhulumente. Ngoxa ezinye iimeko zetort zinokukhuthaza ukwahlukana kolawulo ukuba amaqela asuka kumazwe awahlukeneyo kunye nobungakanani obukwimpikiswano obungaphezulu kwama-$75,000, umthetho osezantsi osetyenziswayo uya kuba ngumthetho wesizwe (ngaphantsi kwemfundiso ye-Erie). Iinkundla zikarhulumente zisebenzisa imithetho yazo yemibalo ebhaliweyo kwaye ngokufuthi zinokusebenzisa izahlulo ezikhethekileyo (umz., amacandelo amancinane, amacandelo angowamakhaya) ukusingatha iimeko ngendlela elungeleyo.

Izabelo neSiseko

Ulawulo lwemimiselo, amatyala, kunye neendawo ziphantsi kolawulo lwesizwe. Iinkundla ze-probate zongamela ukusasazwa kwezinto zomntu ofileyo, ukugunyaziswa komnikeli, ukumisela oorhulumente okanye abalawuli, kunye nokucombulula iimbambano phakathi kweendlalifa. Ulawulo lokuthembeka, iinqanawa zokukhusela, kunye neenqanawa zokulungiselela imicimbi zelizwe zikwayimibandela yorhulumente. Iinkundla zeSizwe azibandakanyekanga kwiprobate, nangona zinokuva imicimbi enjengezityholo okanye ngokuchasene nomthetho wolawulo oluphantsi komthetho.

Ukhuphiswano lwangoku: Xa Zombini Iinkqubo Ziyehla

Kwezinye iimeko, zombini iinkundla zikarhulumente norhulumente zinegunya lokuva uhlobo olunye lwetyala. Oku kwaziwa njengegunya elikhoyo. Xa kukho ulawulo lwequmrhu, umpolisa angakhetha ukufayile kwinkundla yelizwe okanye yesizwe (imfuno zolawulo lwamagunya ezwe ziyafezekiswa). Ngokuchasene noko, ummangalelwa ogwetyelwe kwinkundla yephondo unokuba nokhetho lokususa elityala kwinkundla yesizwe ukuba belinokubekwa apho ntlandlolo. Iimeko apho ulawulo lwasekuhlaleni luqhele ukuqukwa nokulandelayo.

Amalungelo e-oyile

Ukwaphulwa kwemithetho yamalungelo abantu karhulumente (umz. 42, U.S.C. 1983 ngenxa yamalungelo omgaqo-siseko ancitshisiweyo phantsi komthetho wesizwe) kungaziswa kumbini wenkundla yephondo okanye yephondo. Kwakhona amaphondo amaninzi anemithetho yawo yamalungelo asekuhlaleni enika amayeza afanayo. AmaPlato adla ngokukhetha inkundla yorhulumente ngenxa yeengenelo ezikhoyo, njengaleyo yokufumana imithetho ekhululekileyo okanye ukufumaneka kwemirhumishoni. Noko ke, iinkundla zikarhulumente zifanelekele ngokupheleleyo ukuva iimfuno zamalungelo karhulumente, kwaye abanye abantu abaqhelekileyo bakhetha inkundla yezo mvume ngenxa yezizathu zokufumana okanye ukuchasana.

Imithetho yokusingqongileyo

Iintlawulo ezivela phantsi kwemithetho yemeko-bume neyamazwe, njenge-Celean Water Act, i-Celean Air Act, kunye nomthetho karhulumente, zisoloko ziwela kwisivumelwano sombuso. Zombini iinkundla zikarhulumente nowesizwe zingava iisuti zommi zifuna ukunyanzelisa imimiselo yemeko-bume. Amazwe amaninzi aye anika igunya lokuzalisekisa iinkqubo zikarhulumente, adala iinkqubo zokunyanzelisa. Ityala elibandakanya ukophulwa kwemvume yemekobume yesizwe linokuziswa enkundleni karhulumente, lo gama umthetho karhulumente uzibanga ukuba ubangela inkathazo okanye ityala liziswa enkundlelweni yephondo.

Ucalucalulo Ngemisebenzi

Imithetho yesizwe isenokuquka irekhodi ekhuselweyo engakumbi okanye inike izivumelwano ezingakumbi. Umthetho othethwini ochasene nolwaphulo-mthetho lwesizwe nolwamazwe. Umzekelo, iSihlomelo VII soMthetho wamaLungelo ka-1949 sakwaSaphula-mthetho siyalwalela ucalucalulo olusekelwe kuhlanga, imibala, unqulo, isini, kunye nemvelaphi yesizwe; imithetho yesizwe isoloko idibanisa iindidi ezingakumbi okanye inike izivumelwano ezithe kratya. Abameli besizwe abacalucalucalucalulo bayakwazi ukubeka ityala nge-Aultlective Oction Commission (EOC) kwaye kamva bavavanye ngokucophelela kwinkundla ekhoyo, imimiselo ye-octive, okanye balandele ityala phantsi komthetho wenkundla yephondo.

Ukhuseleko noMgaqo-nkqubo

Ngoxa umthetho we-arhente we-operation (umz., phantsi koMthetho weSigqibo sika-1933 okanye uMthendeleko woMthetho we-Escuresties Exchange ka-1934) usoloko ubekwa kwinkundla yephondo, iinkundla zephondo nazo zinegunya kwiimeko ezininzi zokungaqiniseki. Iinkundla zephondo zibone ukuba iinkundla zephondo ziyakwazi ukuva iingxelo ezithile zetyala ngokuhambelana neenkundla zesizwe. Noko ke, iSibonelelo soMgangatho-Mgangatho-siseko we-Mgangatho-siseko (SUSA) simisela imiqathango ethile yeqela phantsi komthetho wesizwe xa ichazwe kakubi ngokunxulumene netyala. Ngaphezu koko, iinkundla zezomthetho ziyakwazi ukusingatha iimpikiswano zezemali ezilawula imicimbi yezemali, ezokubandakanye imicimbi yesizwe, ezibandakanya ukuvalwa komthetho womthetho wesizwe njengemeko yemvelaphi ephambili kodwa imicimbi yezomthetho.

Umahluko Ongundoqo Phakathi Korhulumente Nomanyano

Ngoxa imikhosi yorhulumente neyamagunya karhulumente isebenza ekuxhaseni umthetho, kukho umahluko ophawulekayo ochaphazela abachaphazelekayo, amagqwetha, kunye nenkqubo ebanzi yomthetho. Ukuqonda le migaqo-mthetho kubalulekile kuye nabani na oqhuba impikiswano engokwasemthethweni okanye ofunda isiseko sezomthetho saseMerika.

Umda weMithetho Osetyenziswayo

[[NKQUBO: 0] Iinkundla zezentengiso ngokuyintloko zichaza kwaye zisebenzise umthetho wesizwe, kuquka umGaqo-siseko, imimiselo, kunye nezivumelwano. Xa kuthethwa iinkundla zesizwe ezahlukahlukeneyo, iinkundla zikarhulumente kufuneka zisebenzise umthetho ongaphantsi kwetyala phantsi [[] Imfundiso engundoqo (I-EURRR. v. Tompkins, 304 U.S. (1938). Oku kuthetha ukuba kwanakwinkundla yorhulumente yorhulumente, ityala elisekelwe kumthetho emothe ngqo liya kugqityetyiswa ekusebenziseni kwemithetho yesizwe. [FLT] iinkundla zesizwe] zelizwe [FLT] ze-S.[FLT]

Iindidi Zolwaphulo - mthetho Eziviwayo

Iinkundla zomanyano ezibandakanya imibuzo karhulumente, ukwahluka-hluka kwabemi, ukukhutshwa kwamalungelo eemali, ukubhaliswa kwamalungelo emali, kunye neembambano apho iUnited States ililungu. Iinkundla zeli lizwe zisingatha zonke ezinye izinto — intlawulo enkulu yomthetho wolwaphulo-mthetho, umthetho weentsapho, umthetho wempahla, izivumelwano zomthetho wesibonelelo, kunye nomthetho we-tort. Umthamo wamatyala kwiinkundla zikarhulumente ungaphezulu lee leenkundla zikarhulumente. Ngokwenkcazelo evela kwiZiko leeNkundla zeSizwe zamaRhulumente, inkundla zamatyala asingatha amatyala amatsha angaphezu kwezigidi ezingama-80 ngonyaka, ngelixa le komiti yesithilithi ye-U.

Ukhetho Nendawo Yabagwebi

[[NTLT:0] Abagwebi abakwiziphene. Abagwebi bamasebe abalawulayo (Izigwebi ze-Artle III) zimiselwa nguMongameli kwaye ziqinisekiswe yiNdlu yeeNdlu yeeNtsimi. Basebenza ngexesha lokuziphatha okuhle, okuthetha ubomi ngempumelelo. Olu zimelelo lwenzelwe ukukhusela abalawuli bezopolitiko. Abagwebi bamajaji besizwe nabagwebi abarhoxisa imali emalini bawa phantsi kwamalungelo abo. Abagwebi besizwe bagwetyelwe ngeendlela ezahlukeneyo: ezinye zinyulwa ngamaRhovita, ezinye zimiselwa ngabalawuli, kwaye ezinye zinyulwa yimithetho e-ogqwebo okanye iintlanganiso zemithetho e-mthetho. Amanani ahlukene kakhulu, ukusuka kwimiqatha yeminyaka eli-12 okanye 14-onyaka, kunye namazwe amaninzi alawula unyulo lweemeko ezohlukeneyo.

Imithetho Engumthetho

Inkqubo yenkundla nganye inemithetho yayo eyifakelayo. Iinkundla zoManyano zilandela iMithetho eBala iMithetho yeCandelo, iMimiselo yeNkqutyana ye-Federal yePunionment Procediture, kunye neMimiselo yoBufakazi yoMgaqo-siseko. Iinkundla zeRhulumente zinemithetho yazo yemigaqo yemo-siseko, esoloko imiselwa emva kwemithetho karhulumente kodwa isenokuhluka ngokwenkcukacha ezibalulekileyo, ezifana nokufumana imida yokuhamba, ukwenza imiqathango yokusebenza, kunye neenkqubo zokuvavanya isalathi. Umzekelo, iinkundla zephondo zifuna ukutyhilwa ngokupheleleyo kwamangqina oogqirha phambi kokuvavanywa, ngoxa amanye amazwe efumana okulinganiselweyo. Imithetho yeSigxa esisikelele ivumela ukuba kubekho utshintsho olugqithisyo olugqithisyo lolu hlobo lolwano lobugwala. Olu mahluko lwemithetho ye-procculture lunokuphembele ityala.

Inkqubo yezibheno

Izibheno ezivela kwiinkundla zesithili zikarhulumente ziya kwiinkundla zezibheno zase-U.S. (apho zikhona), kunye neNkundla ePhakamileyo yase-U.S. njengenkundla yezomthetho zokugqibela. Inkqubo yesizwe ineziphaluka ezili-13, kuquka iNkundla ePhakamileyo esingatha izibongozo zoorhulumente ezikhethekileyo. Izibheno zikaRhulumente ziya kwiinkundla eziphakathi (apho zikhona) kwaye ke zize ziqinisekise ukuba igunya lokugqibela lenkundla yephondo (ngokufuthi ingulowo ubizwa yinkundla ephakamileyo okanye inkundla yezibheno-bheno). Inkundla ePhakamileyo yase-U. Inkundla ephakamileyo yase-U.S. iNkuNkundle i-U. i-Fondeli i-Freverse-Freetal iyakwazi ukubukelisa izigqibo zezigwebo zenkundla eziphezulu xa zibandakanya imbambano zikarhulumente, kodwa ayinakubhukula ukubhuku umgaqo wenkundla karhulumente. Le komiti iqinisekisa ukuba umthetho wenkundla yephondo lorhulumente likwimo.

Ukwakhiwa komgangatho we Jury

Kumatyala asekuhlaleni, amaqumrhu eejaji adla ngokuququzelelwa ngamalungu amathandathu ukuya kwi-12, anemithetho efuna isigqibo esimxhelo mnye ngaphandle kokuba amaqumrhu ayavuma ngenye indlela. Kwienkundla zikarhulumente, ubukhulu betyala letyala lamakhaya busoloko bungu 6 ukuya ku 12, kodwa amanye amaphondo avumela ukuba imithetho yejaji encinane. Imithetho yetyala iyahlukahluka: amanye amazwe afuna ukungalingani, ngoxa amanye evumela izigqibo ezininzi (umz., 5/6/12) kwiityala zamakhaya. Ityala lolwaphulo-mthetho kwinkundla yorhulumente kufuneka ukuba zivumelane yaye ityala le komiti yolwaphulo-mthetho ifuna ukungalingani kunye namatyala ali-12, kodwa iNkundla ye-U. i-CS. i-2020.

Imeko yomGaqo-siseko nengokwembali

Ulwahlulo lolawulo phakathi kwenkundla yesizwe neyorhulumente lusekelwe kuMgaqo-siseko wase-U.S. IGatya III, iCandelo lesi-2 libala amandla okugweba karhulumente worhulumente, ngoxa iSigqibo seSihlalo seSiphendu seSihlalo sigcine ezinye zise mazwe. IFramers, igawula amandla aphakathi, yadala i-judicaria enegunya elilinganiselweyo lokusingatha imicimbi yesizwe ngelixa kunyaka wonke, xa kushiywa ulungelelwaniso lwamandla ewongamazwe. Imithetho ye-Judiciary ka-19 ka-1789 imisela iinkundla ezisezantsi zelizwe kwaye ichaza imimandla yazo, kuquka ukulawula kwazo ngokwahlukeneyo ukulungiselela ubundili bobuzwe. Ngokungenjalo, iBhunganeenkundla zezomthetho-orhulumente ezininzi ezikhoyo, ingumthetho womthetho womthetho-rhulumente woluntu, ukwandiswa kwemiqatha, imigaqo-mthetho elawula imigaqo-mthetho ekhoyo.

Izicelo Ezisebenzisekayo Zabafundi Nabafundisi

Kubafundi abafunda urhulumente okanye umthetho, ukuqonda ukwahlulwa kolawulo kunceda kucaciselwe isizathu sokuba amatyala athile eviwa kwiinkundla ezithile. Umzekelo, kutheni ityala lemfundo eliyingqoqo-mvana lingumzekelo wetyala lenkundla Brown v. ibhodi yemfundo[ (1954]) ibekwe kwinkundla karhulumente? Ngenxa yokuba ibandakanya ukhuseleko lwemithetho-siseko (ukulingana nokhuseleko lwenkundla) kunye nomthetho wenkundla wenkundla yetyala. Kutheni lento ingunobangela ukuba uqhawulo mtshato lusoloko luhleli kwinkundla yenkundla? Ngenxa yokuba umthetho wentsapho uyinkxalabo yesithethe?

Isiphelo

Ukuqonda umahluko phakathi kolawulo lukarhulumente nololawulo lwamazwe kubalulekile ekuqondeni ubuntsonkothileyo benkqubo yomthetho wase-U. Ngokuqonda ukuba yiyiphi inkundla enegunya kwiimbambano ezithile, abafundi, abaqeqeshi, kunye neengcali ezingokwasemthethweni ezinokuthi zikwazi ukuqhuba kakuhle ingxubusho engokwasemthethweni, amatyala, kunye neembambano zehlabathi lokwenene. Olu lwazi lungekuphela nje koncedo kwimfundo yemfundo kodwa lukhuthaza nokuba ngumbutho wobuzwe olwazi. Ulwahlulo lolawulo lubonisa ukulungelelanisa ulawulo lwesizwe nolawulo lwe-I6, kuqinisekisa ukuba inkoliso yempikiswano engokwasemthethweni iconjululwe lunxibelelwano olusondeleyo kubantu abakhonza kubo. Njengoko imicimbi esemthethweni iqhubeka iguquka kwimicimbi eqhubekayo, ukuqhubana phakathi kwelizwe kunye neenkundla zolawulo lwe-Melika.

ukwenzela ukufunda ngokubhekele phaya ngokulawula kwesizwe, bona [[FLT: 1] iCornell Legin Information Institute yolawulo lwezwe ; ukuntywilisela nzulu kwiinkqubo zenkundla yelizwe, tyelelani iziko lesizwe leeNkundla zezoburhulumente [[FLT] [[FLT:] [[FLT]]; kwimbali yeMithetho yeJavitary, jongana noovimba bamaZibonelo [[[FLT:]; kwaye ngokwezibalo zangoku zenkundla zisebenza, bona iProjectalm-[FLT].[FLT]