Ukucindezeleka Okuhlala Kukhona: Ukulinganisela Ukuphepha Komphakathi Namalungelo Abantu Ngabodwa

Ubuhlobo phakathi kokuphepha komphakathi namalungelo omuntu ngamunye bunye bezinselele eziphikelelayo neziyinkimbinkimbi kakhulu emthethweni nasebusweni. Umphakathi ngamunye kumelwe unqume ukuthi ungawavikela kanjani amalungu awo ekulimaleni kuyilapho ulondoloza inkululeko ebangela ukuphila. Lokhu kulinganisela akumi ndawonye; kuyashintshana nesimo sezulu sezombangazwe, intuthuko yezobuchwepheshe, nobunzima obungalindelekile. Ukuqonda izisekelo zawo ezingokomlando, izimiso eziyisisekelo zomthetho, kanye nezikhungo ezisheshayo zanamuhla kubalulekile ukuze umuntu abe isakhamuzi esinolwazi kanye nokwenza imithetho eqotho.

Ukuchaza Imibono Yamakhoba

Ukuphepha komphakathi kubhekisela ekuvikelekeni kwabantu abaningi ezingozini ezinjengobugebengu, ubuphekula, izinhlekelele zemvelo, kanye nezibhadane. Kuwumthwalo wemfanelo oyinhloko kahulumeni, osekelwe emfundisweni yesivumelwano sezenhlalo eqanjwe izazi zefilosofi njengoThomas Hobbes noJohn Locke. Ukuze kuncishiswe ukulondeka, abantu ngabanye bafune ukubuswa umbuso. Umuntu ngamunye, ngakolunye uhlangothi, unelungelo elingokwemvelo lokukhuluma, ukuhlangana, imfihlo, inkolo, kanye nesivikelo esisekelwe kuhulumeni owenziwe ngomthetho-mthetho-sisekelo wemithetho-sisekelo noma izimfijolo zamalungelo abantu emhlabeni wonke. Inselele inselele ekubekeni inseleleni elungelweni ngamalungelo angalinganiselwa ngaphandle kokukhipha idelelo lentando yentando yeningi ahloselwe ukulizwa.

Ukuziphendukela Kwemvelo Okungokomlando Kokulinganisela

Ubunzima phakathi kokuhleleka nenkululeko bunemvelaphi ejulile yomlando. Emiphakathini yasendulo, njengaleyo elawulwa yiKhodi likaHammurabi (c. 1754 BCE), umthetho wamisa izizinziso zomphakathi kanye nesijeziso phezu kwezivikele zomuntu ngamunye. IRiphabliki lamaRoma lasungula imiqondo enjenge as corpus (ilungelo lokubekela isigwebo esingekho emthethweni inselele), ngezimiso, nakuba yayisetshenziswa ngokuguquguqukayo. Ikhodi elikhulu lenguquko yafika ngo-1215 nge- i-Magnas Carta, eyasungula ukuthi inkosi yayingakhohli umthetho futhi izinqubo ezithile ezingokomthetho zabantu eziqinisekisiwe. Le fomu yabeka inqubo engokomthetho engokomthetho.

Ukukhanyiselwa kwekhulu le-17 nele-18 kwandisa amalungelo athuthukisiwe. Abacabangi abanjengoJohn Locke balwela amalungelo emvelo ekuphileni, enkululeko, nasempahlani, kuyilapho uMontesquieu esekela ukuhlukaniswa kwemibuso. iUnited States Bill of Rights[ [179] [179]] (1791]) amandla kahulumeni alinganiselwe ngokuvikela inkulumo, inkolo, cindezela, nelungelo lokuphatha izikhali. Ngokufanayo, iSimemezelo samalungelo oMveli woMntu nesombuluko [FLT]] [[FLT] [[FLT]] [12]] [78]) yamemezela amalungelo nokulingana njengemvelo nengenakulinganiswa. Le zincwadi zagunyaza isimiso sokuvikela umphakathi okumelwe ukuba kube yimpoqoko.

Ekhulwini lama-20 leminyaka, ukuvela kwemibuso yobushiqela − uNazi Jalimane, iSoviet Union , yaveza imiphumela eyinhlekelele yokudela amalungelo abantu ngabanye ngenxa yokuvikelwa okuhlangene. Isimemezelo sobuzwe samalungelo abantu [ [1948])) savela njengempendulo yomhlaba wonke, iqinisekisa ukuthi amalungelo abantu asendaweni yonke futhi kumelwe avikelwe ngisho nangezikhathi eziphuthumayo. Nokho, umthetho wezizwe zonke uvumela ukususwa kwamalungelo athile phakathi nezimo eziphuthumayo, uma kunikezwa izinhlelo ezingezizobuhlanga nobugebengu obungahambisani.

Izimiso Ezingokomthetho Eziyinhloko Zilawula Ukulinganisela

Ukuqonda lezi zimiso kubalulekile ekuhloleni noma imuphi umthetho noma isimiso esivimbela inkululeko ngenxa yokuphepha.

Inqubo Yomthetho Efanele

Inqubo elindelekile iqinisekisa ukuthi uhulumeni awunakuncisha umuntu ukuphila, inkululeko, noma impahla ngaphandle kwezinqubo ezilungile. Lokhu kuhlanganisa ilungelo lokuqaphela, ukuzwa, ukumelelwa komthetho, kanye nenkantolo engenalubandlululo. Iziphakamiso zesihlanu neshumi nane zeSinayithi ziqinisekisa inqubo elindelekile. Emkhandlwini wokuphepha komphakathi, inqubo efanele ivimbela ukuvalelwa okungenamthetho okungenangqondo, ngokwesibonelo, abantu abaphethwe njengofakazi abaphathekayo noma imithetho yokuvinjelwa okungaphansi kwesigwebo kumelwe bangene ngokushesha ekubukezeni kokwahlulela. [[FLT: 0] Izigwebo zeNkantolo yecala le-Suprememe eUnited States v [197]] [1987] ukuvikelwa kwemidelwa kwabakwanengozi kodwa okumelwe kuvinjelwe futhi kuviswe kanye nokuvinjelwe.

Isabelo

Isimiso sokulinganisela sidinga ukuba noma yimuphi umngcele wamalungelo ulinganiswe nosongo futhi udingeke emphakathini wentando yeningi. Lokhu kusho ingozi encane ayinakuthethelela ukuvinjelwa okukhulu. Ukuhlaziya kwemithetho yamalungelo abantu yaseYurophu ngaphansi isisekelo somthetho wamalungelo abantu [[FLT:]] i-Eupanoan Convention on Human Rights [. Ngokwesibonelo, [ku-] [ku-Silver v. United Kingdom [19983], iNkantolo yaseYurophu yamalungelo omphakathi yanquma ukuthi ukucushwa kwezincwadi zejele kwakudinga ukulondeka. EUnited States, izinkantolo zisebenza ngokucuphenyanisa leyo mithetho ephula amalungelo ayisisekelo, ifuna ukuba uhulumeni ubonise isithakazelo esine.

Indlela Yokubekela Izilwane Imingcele

Imfuneko ehlobene kakhulu nokulingana iyimfuneko yokuba uhulumeni akhethe izindlela ezingezinkulu kakhulu zokufinyelela umgomo wakhe wokuphepha. Uma zimbalwa ezinye izindlela zokuphepha − njengokuqapha esikhundleni seqoqo lemininingwane ye-octal(-) uhulumeni kumelwe azisemukele. Lesi simiso sasetshenziswa ku Shelton v. Tucker [1960], lapho iNkantolo Ephakeme yabulala khona umthetho we-Arkansas ufuna abafundisi ukuba bahlele zonke izitho zenhlangano, bazitholele ububanzi ngokungafanele. Izimiso ezifanayo zokuvikela iSiphendumiso sesine ngokuphendukunga okungakholekiyo: isiqinisekiso esisekelwe kwimbangela engekhona okuvimbelayo.

Ukungaguquguquki

Izindlela zokuphepha zomphakathi akumelwe zikhethe amaqembu asekelwe ohlangeni, enkolweni, ebuhlanga, noma kwezinye izici ezivikelwe. Ukuphoqelelwa kokungaphathi mthetho kuqeda ukwethembana futhi ngokuvamile kuphula isiqinisekiso esifanayo. Ukuvinjelwa kokuhamba ngezikhathi zokuphatha kweTrump (umz., ] Trump v. Hawaii, 2018] [u-2018]) ibonisa ukungezwani phakathi kwenhlala kahle kwesizwe nokucwaswa kwenkolo. INkantolo Ephakeme yasekela ukuvinjelwa kodwa yagcizelela ukuthi izimiso zokungathathi hlangothi ebusweni zisengashaywa phansi uma zishukunyiswa yi-amis. Ngokuphikisanayo, [[FLT.[FLT:]][FLD]] [FLD]] [12:3] iveza ukuthi ukuvilightiventialsessionsty, ithinta imiphakathi, i-midemolmsdians.

Izinga Lokudambisa Lesikhathi Esizayo

Izinselele zanamuhla ziye zaqinisa impikiswano, ikakhulukazi emongweni lapho usongo luyivelakancane, lusakazeke yonke indawo, noma luwumlamuleli wobuchwepheshe.

Ubuphekula Nenani Labantu

Kusukela ekuhlaseleni kwe-September 11, 2001, ohulumeni emhlabeni wonke baye bandisa amandla okuhlola. PRITIOT Act , idluliswe ngo-2001], ivumele ukutholakala kwamarekhodi ebhizinisi, kanye nokuhlangana kokuhlakanipha. Nakuba abasekeli bala mathuluzi babalulekile ekuphazamiseni amaqhinga amaphekula, abagxeki bakhomba ukusebenzisa kabi iqoqo le-MS, i-ONUSY’S program ye-metalog ye-MS [ edalwe yi-Edwarthroulten ebhalwe ngu-omfontry Courts of Applicers (ukulwane) ngo-2013. Ingxoxo yesibili yeNkamelo yathola isimiso esingagunyaziwe umthetho. [FL: 4, NW] AL.[FFFFFFFF:]

Izingxabano ezifanayo zikhona eUnited Kingdom nge- Act 2016 (i-"Snoper's Chater"), egunyaza izinkampani ze-Internet ukuba zigcine imetameta kuze kube izinyanga eziyi-12. I-Act iye yabekelwa inselele ngaphansi komthetho wamalungelo abantu e-Europe, namaqembu aphikisana ngenkululeko yomphakathi antula ukulingana nokuqondisa okuzimele. Imithetho emelene nobuphekula isetshenziswa ekucindezeleni ukuphikisa, njengoba kuboniswa emazweni anjenge-Egypt neTurkey, lapho amandla esimo sikahulumeni abangela ukuboshwa kwabantu abaningi. Inselele yomhlaba wonke ingeyokwenza ukugawula amalungelo okuvikela asebenza kodwa asebenza, ngokushonisa imiyalo nokuqondisa kokwahlulela ukuvimbela ukuthunywa kwemisebenzi.

Impilo Yomphakathi Phakathi Nezikhathi Zokugula

I-COVOVID-19 umqedazwe wamalungelo ezisebenzini ezivikelekile waletha ukugxila okuqondile kokuhwebelana ngamalungelo. Amabhande, iziphakamiso, izimfuneko, nokuxhumana nezinhlelo zokuhlola kwaphakamisa imibuzo ngemingcele yamandla kahulumeni. E-United States, iNkantolo Ephakeme yasekela imvume yokugomela izisebenzi zempilo kodwa yabulala isilinganiso esiphuthumayo sesikhashana sabaqashi abakhulu (NFIB v. OSTA, 2022]). Izwe njengeFlorida ne-Texas yadlulisela imithetho yokuvimbela izifihla isikhumba nemithi yokwelapha, yaveza inkululeko yomuntu ngamunye, kuyilapho abanye bephoqesha indisela inqubo eqinile yokuvikela impilo yomphakathi.

Umthetho wamalungelo abantu wezizwe zonke uvumela ukususwa kwamalungelo athile phakathi nezimo eziphuthumayo zempilo yomphakathi, kodwa izinyathelo kumelwe zisekelwe ebufakazini obungokwesayensi, obulinganiselwe, futhi zilinganise. Inhlangano yezempilo yezwe lonke igcizelela ukubekwa kwamalungelo abantu. Endleleni, ohulumeni abaningi ababekelwe imithetho ebekelwe isikhathi, ukuhamba okubekelwe imingcele, kanye nokuhlukanisa abantu, okungathethelelwa uma benciphisa ukudluliswa nokuvikela imiphakathi esengozini. Nokho, ukuphoqesha kwemiphakathi encintiweyo (umz., i-mpatho yamaphoyisa ehlasela imiphakathi emincane) nokuntuleka kwenqubo efanele yokuhlukaniswa ngokwehlukana kuye kwafakazelwa yizinhlangano ezinjenge [[FLT:] amalungelo abantu abangaphandle, futhi kuboniswe ngokunyelele, lapho inselele, futhi inselele, lapho inselele, futhi inselele, lapho inseleleka.

Ukubhikisha Nomhlangano Wezenhlalo

Ilungelo lokubuthana nokubhikisha liyisisekelo sedemokrasi, kodwa livame ukungqubuzana nokuhleleka komphakathi. Eminyakeni yamuva, izinhlangano ezinjengo-Black Live Matter nokushintsha kwesimo sezulu ziye zashukumisela iziphathimandla ukuba zibeke imithetho yezikhathi zokwehla, zisho "ezingekho zindawo ezingezinhle," futhi zisebenzise amandla ukusakaza izixuku. Izinkantolo ngokuvamile kuye kwadingeka ukuba zilinganisele isivikelo seSichibiyelo sokuqala sokuthula esimelene nobudlova, umonakalo wempahla, noma ukuphazanyiswa kwezinkonzo ezibalulekile.

Icala leNkantolo ePhakeme kakhulu NAICP v. I-Flair Hallands Co. (1982) yaqinisekisa ukuthi ukubhikisha okunokuthula akunakuvalwa ngenxa nje yekhono lokungenza ubudlova kwabanye. Nokho, Barrett v. Rosenal[[[FLT]][200]] [2006], iNkanto ephethe ukuthi isithi isithi iyakwazi ukubeka isikhathi esinengqondo, indawo, nezimiso ezibekwe ngendlela ehlukile. Isihluthulelo siwukuthi imingcele kumelwe ikhuliswe-neutral nevulekile imikhondo yokuxhumana. Phakathi nemikhankambo engu-20, eminye amadolobha abeka imithetho ebekelwe isilinganiso sesikhashana, kodwa abagxekizekelelwa ngokuthula. I-smoneral ivikele i-snerner, i-ssnay. Isivikelo somphakathi se-edult, sifaka i-modult.

Ukuzihlukanisa Kwabantu Ngezinombolo Nokungavikeleki

Enkathini yezibalo, ukulinganisela kudlulela ekuqoqweni kwe-inthaneti nasebuthweni le-inthaneti ngohulumeni nohlelo. Ngokwesibonelo, ukuqinisekisa ukugcinwa kwezindawo zangemva kwe-odoli kuyafunwa umthetho njengokudingekile ekulweni nobugebengu nobuphekula, kodwa abameleli bezindaba zomuntu siqu baxwayisa ukuthi bangadala ama-velnabics axhatshazwa abadlali abanonya. Applebl v. FBI[F:1] icala (206) ngokuvula i-San Bernardorander's iPhoone iqokomisa lokhu kuphikisana. Uhulumeni waveza ukuthi kwakudingeka ukuphumelela ukuze kuvimbele ukuhlasela kwesikhathi esizayo; i-Appledrey ukuthi ukwenza umnyango ngemva komsebenzi ungenza ukuba bonke abasebenzisi balahlekelwe ukulondeka kwe-FBICC, kodwa kwasala nemibuzo engokomthetho.

Ngokufanayo, ukuqoqwa kokwaziswa okukhulu kwe-Al-driven polisi, ukuqapha ubuso, nokubikezela ukukhishwa kwemigomo kuphakamisa ukukhathazeka mayelana nenqubo yangasese, inqubo efanele, kanye nemiphumela ehlukanisayo. I-European Union ye-General Data Protection Regatection (GDPR)[FL:1] ibeka imingcele eqinile ekuqhubekeni kokusebenza kolwazi, kodwa ukulondeka kwesizwe ngokuvamile kuyasebenza. EUnited States, iZiphendumiso Zesine "ukulindela ngokunengqondo kwendawo yendabuzenzi" zivivinywa ngezobuchwepheshe obusha, njengoba kubonakala ku-[FLT:]. United States v[FLT][FLD:3] [2018], lapho iNkakhulu leNkakhulu lilawula khona ukuthi kudinga ukufakwa kwemininingwane ye-potina yeze-msterobon.

Ukuhlola Icala Ngemininingwane

UMthetho Ka - USA Ophathelene Nezimo Ezibucayi: Ukusabela Okungokomthetho

Idlula ngokusekela okukhulu kwe-bipartisan ezinsukwini ezingu-45 kuphela ngemva kuka-9/11, i-PARIOT Act yandisa ngokuphawulekayo ukuqapha kwamandla ombuso ombuso kanye nokuqiniswa komthetho. Izimiso eziyinhloko zahlanganisa: (1) ama-wap aqala ukubheka angalandela isisulu ngapha nangapha kwemishini eminingi; (2) ukufinyelela "ezingakholeki" (kuhlanganise amarekhodi emitatsheni yezincwadi, amarekhodi ebhizinisi, kanye nemininingwane yezokwelapha) ngaphansi kwe-Curt 215; (3) ukubekezelelwa kwesaziso ("sneak kanye ne-sccunt") izimfuneko; kanye (4) nokunweba ulwazi olunwebeze phakathi kokuhlakanipha nomthetho.

Nakuba lo Mthetho wanconywa ngokusiza ekuphazamiseni izinhloso eziningana, amaqembu enkululeko yomphakathi aphikisa ukuthi inqabe ukuvinjelwa kweSichibiyelo sesine sokuphenya okungacabangeli neSichibiyelo Sokuqala sokuvikela inhlangano. I-ACLU yabekela inselele i-Cate 215 ku-ACLU v. I-Clapper[[, eholela ekuhluleleni ukuthi uhlelo olukhulu lwenhlangano aluvunyelwe ngokomthetho. Ekuphenduleni, i-Constantion yadlulisa uMthetho weNTHONDO , owaqeda ukuqoqwa okukhulu kocingo nokunyuka kokukhanya. Nokho, eminye iminikelo eminingi ihlala ihlala ikhona. Ukuhlolwa kubonisa ubunzima bokushona kwemibuso yesimo sosuku oluphuthumayo kanye ekwakwakhiweni kwezombangazwe futhi nezombangazwe kuyolula futhi inciphe izivumelwano zezombangazwe.

Ukuvala i-COVID-19: Ukuqhathanisa i-appey

Izindawo ezihlukene zathatha izindlela ezihlukene kakhulu kulomqedazwe, kanye nezici ezihlukene ngamalungelo. I-New Zealand yasebenzisa isimiso sokuqapha esinezintambo ezine eziqinile, ukuvalwa komngcele, nokuxhumana okuqinile. Nakuba izakhamuzi zazilalela, abagxeki baphawula ukuntuleka kwempikiswano yephalamende ngemithetho kanye nokuboshwa kwabantu abambalwa ngenxa yokuhlukaniswa kwabantu. Ngokungafani, i-Sweden yayithembele kakhulu ezindinganisweni zokuzithandela, ilondoloza inkululeko yomuntu ngamunye kodwa ibone ukufa okukhulu phakathi kwasebekhulile. IUnited States yabona umsebenzi owenziwe ngendivava, izinselele ezingokomthetho ezithi zimelene nenkululeko engokwenkolo (umz., ukuba khona ezinkonzweni zesonto) kanye nokuthola imali ephilayo.

Izinkantolo emhlabeni wonke zasebenzisa ukuhlolwa kokulinganisa i-system commossion. INkantolo ye-German Federal Constitution, esinqumo sika-2021, yavala imingcele yokuxhumana njengengalinganiyo namazinga okungenwa yizifo ngaleso sikhathi. INkantolo ePhakathi yase-U.S., e eRoma Katolika eBrooklyn v.[[[FLT][FLT]] [20] [20]), yavala imingcele yesikhundla sawo emasontweni, yathola ukuthi yaphula i-Free Express Claiseece. Lezi zibo zigcizelela ukuthi ngisho nangenkathi yezimo eziphuthumayo, ohulumeni kumelwe bathathe izinyathelo zokulungisa izinsolo ezithile futhi bacule ngaphandle kwezindawo ezingamukeleki. Ngokunokwenzeka, umqeda cishe umthetho wemithetho yezomthetho ka-octivementalgametic mayelana namandla emisebenzi yezesayensi yokuhlola.

Ukudlondlobala Kokuvinjelwa Kobuso

Ubuchwepheshe bokuqashelwa kobuso (FRT) buyithuluzi elinamandla lokuqinisekisa ukugcinwa komthetho , ukuthola abantu abalahlekile, nokuvimbela ubugebengu. Kodwa ukusetshenziswa kwalo kuye kwagxekwa ngenxa yokungalungi, ikakhulukazi kubantu abanombala, futhi ukwenza ukuba kuqashelwe abantu abaningi. Amadolobha amaningana ase-U.S., kuhlanganise neSan Francisco, Boston, neMinneapolis, aye avala ukusebenzisa i-FRT. I-Union's i-AIASC [ Act engavimbela ukuqaphamba isayensi yangempela yemisebe ezindaweni zomphakathi ngaphandle kwezezodwa, ukuhlolwa okuqinile (njengokufuna umntwana olahlekileyo).

Abasekeli be-FRT baphikisa ngokuthi ingathuthukisa ukuphepha komphakathi, ngokwesibonelo, ikhomba umsoli esixukwini ngaphambi kokuba bashaye. Abaphikisi baphendula ngokuthi umphumela owethusayo ekwakheni inkululeko nasebutheni obungasetshenziswa kabi unyanzelisa uhulumeni udlula izinzuzo. Ukulinganisela lapha akuhileli nje ukulingana kodwa futhi ukulawula kwentando yeningi: onqumayo ukuthi amakhamera abekwaphi, ukwaziswa okugciniwe isikhathi eside kangakanani, futhi ikuphi amaphutha amukelekayo?

Ukulinganisela Okunezimiso: Indlela Eqhubekayo

Akukho ukulinganisela okuhlala njalo phakathi kokuphepha komphakathi namalungelo omuntu ngamunye; isizukulwane ngasinye kumelwe siphinde sifunde ngokusekelwe ekusongeleni okusha nobuchwepheshe. Nokho, izimiso ezithile ze-wadgerock kufanele ziqondise:

  • [[QUT:0] Umehluko: Ohulumeni kumelwe bembule isisekelo sezindlela ezivimbelayo futhi banikeze ukwaziswa ngokuphumelela kwabo nangemiphumela engaphandle. Imibuso eyimfihlo yokuhlola iqeda ukwethembana nokulandisa.
  • Ukudlulisa:[ izinkantolo ezizimele, izishaya-mthetho, namabhodi okubukeza okungabuyi-mthetho kumelwe ahlole amandla okhuseleko. Ukuhlelwa kwezigaba nezimfuneko zokubika eziphoqelelwe kusiza ekuvimbeleni izifunda eziphuthumayo ezihlala njalo.
  • Pariciation: imiphakathi ethintekayo kufanele ibe nezwi ekulolongeni izimiso zokuphepha. Amaqembu agwedle imingcele ngokuvamile athwala igalelo lokulawula ngokweqile, ngakho umfakela wayo ubalulekile ukuqinisekisa ukuthi izinyathelo azinakubekwa.
  • Izinciphiso: Abantu ngabanye kumelwe babe nezindlela zokubekela inselele ukwaphulwa kwamalungelo ngaphandle kokwesaba ukuphindisela. Amakhambi asebenzayo, kuhlanganise nokulimala nemithetho, alondoloza umthetho.
  • Ukuhlola okuqhubekayo:[ i-Pricies eklanyelwe usongo olulodwa ingaba ephelelwe isikhathi noma eyingozi. Ukuhlola nokuhlola njalo ukushona kwelanga kuphinde kuphinde kuhlolwe ukuthi izinyathelo zihlala zidingekile futhi zilinganise.

Inselele yokulinganisela inkululeko nokulondeka ayiyona kuphela kunoma yisiphi isizwe; iwuvivinyo lwendawo yonke lokubusa kwentando yeningi. Ngokuhlonipha inqubo efanele, ukulingana, nokungaguquguquki, imiphakathi ingakha ukumelana nezinsongo ngaphandle kokudela inkululeko ehloselwe ukuyivikela. Umlando ufundisa ukuthi ukulondeka okuphumelela kakhulu yilokho okujabulela ukwethenjwa nokusekelwa kwabantu (ne-) futhi okuthengwayo kutholakala kuphela uma amalungelo esekelwa ngisho nasezikhathini ezinzima kakhulu.