Ubuhlobo phakathi kwegunya likahulumeni nombuso buhlela cishe zonke izici zokuphila e-United States, kusukela emoyeni ophefumulela ilayisensi ohamba nayo. Ukuqonda oyenza imithetho kubalulekile ekuqondeni indlela imithetho eyakhiwe ngayo, ephoqelelwe, futhi ngezinye izikhathi ibekelwe inselele emagabeni ahlukene kahulumeni. Lokhu kulinganisela, okubizwa ngokuthi i-constitulism, akumi ndawonye; kuye kwaqala emakhulwini amaningi eminyaka ukuchazwa komthetho ngokomthetho, izingxabano zezombangazwe, nemithetho yokwahlulela.

Imvelaphi Engokomlando Yegunya Lombuso Nombuso

Ukwehlukana kombuso phakathi kukahulumeni wesizwe nezwe kwakuwukuhlehla ngamabomu ngenxa yokwehluleka kweZihlokwana zeConfederation. Ngaphansi kwaleyo ncwadi yokuqala ebusayo, uhulumeni wezwe wawungenagunya elitheni (ukukhokha intela, ukulawula ezohwebo, noma ukuphoqelela imithetho ngokuqondile kubantu ngabanye. Umphumela waba ukuhlangana okubuthakathaka nokuvame ukuphazamisa.

I-Profestical Convention ePhiladelphia ka 1787 yoMthetho-sisekelo wasungula ukwakha uhulumeni onamandla kakhulu ngesikhathi ulondoloza ubukhosi bezwe. Ikhambi kwakuyisimiso sikahulumeni lapho uMthetho-sisekelo ubala khona amandla akhethekile kahulumeni wesizwe futhi ugcine wonke amanye amagunya ezwe. Abasunguli, babhala kuhulumeni i-Federalist Papers[[[FLLT:1]], yaphikisa ngokuthi lobububusi obubili bungavikela inkululeko ngokuvimbela noma yimuphi uhulumeni oyedwa ekutholeni amandla amakhulu kakhulu. James Madison, kuFedison No. 45, edumile ukuthi imibuso ephathiswe uhulumeni wombuso wombuso i-"odfill futhi ichazwe" kuyilapho leyo esele nezizwe ingu-"omdwebizelele naphakade.""

Isimiso Somthetho - sisekelo Samandla Ahlukene Phakathi

UMthetho-sisekelo wase-U.S. umisa isakhiwo sendlela igunya likahulumeni nombuso elikhona ngayo. Ukwenza kanjalo ngezigaba ezintathu zamandla: ezibalayo, ezisikiwe, nezigciniwe.

Amandla Amisiwe (Ayalungiselelwa Uhulumeni Kahulumeni Wama - Federal)

Imibuso elawulwayo ihlelwe ngokucacile eqephini I, Ingxenye 8 yoMthetho-sisekelo. Lezi zihlanganisa:

  • Izentengiselwano zamazwe angaphandle
  • Ukumemezela impi nokunyusa amabutho
  • Ukukhokha imali nokubeka ukubaluleka kwayo
  • Ukumisa inkonzo yeposi nemigwaqo yeposi
  • Ukunikeza imvume esemthethweni nezincwadi ezisemthethweni
  • Ukwenza izinkantolo zikahulumeni zibe ngaphansi kweNkantolo Ephakeme

Isigaba sezentengiselwano − esinika uMkhandlu amandla "olawula ezentengiselwano nezizwe zakwamanye amazwe, naphakathi kwamaZwe amaningana, kanye neTsinja laseNdiya"""() iye yaba ngenye yemithombo ebekwe phambili nebanzi yegunya likahulumeni.

Amandla Asetshenziswayo NoKhisimusi Odingekile Nofanele

Amandla asetshenziswayo awahlelwanga ngokuqondile kodwa abhekwa njengadingekile ukukhipha amagunya adwetshiwe. Umbuso noMfaneleyo Claus (Incazelo I, Ingxenye 8, u-Claus 18) unikeza i-Bhunga igunya ukwenza "yonke imithetho edingayo nefanele ukuthwalwa ekuchitheni amagunya angenhla" lesi sigqebhene esivumela uhulumeni ukuba wandise ukufinyelela kwawo ezindaweni ezinjengebhanki, ukuvikela impilo, nomthetho wendawo ezungezile.

Icala leNkantolo ePhakeme kakhulu uMcculloch v. Maryland (1819) yaqinisekisa ukuba ngokomthetho-mthethweni kwamandla aqondene. IJaji eliyinhloko uJohn Marshall wabhala ukuthi uMthetho-sisekelo awunakukwazi ukubala wonke amandla ombuso angawadinga, nokuthi u-Claus obalulekile nofanele wanika i-Callsus ukwahlulela okubanzi ukuze athathe izinjongo zawo.

Amandla Agciniwe: ISichibiyelo Seshumi

ISichibiyelo seshumi sisebenza njengesisekelo somthetho-sisekelo segunya likahulumeni. Sifundeka kanje: "Imibuso engaphathiswa i-United States nguMthetho-sisekelo, noma enqatshelwe yiwo e-United States, igcinelwe i-United States ngokulandelana, noma abantu." Lokhu kulunga kulinganisela ngokuqondile uhulumeni kahulumeni emagunyeni awo ahlukene futhi kugcine amandla angokwesiko amaphoyisa ezwe, okuhlanganisa ikhono lokumisa impilo, ukuphepha, nesimilo sezakhamuzi zabo.

Ngakho - ke, ohulumeni boMbuso banegunya eliyinhloko:

  • Imfundo (ngezikhathi zangemva kwesikole, ngemali, ukuqashelwa)
  • Ukuphepha komphakathi nomthetho wobugebengu (ubugebengu obuningi buwubugebengu bamazwe)
  • Ukugunda izinwele (odokotela, abameli, abagundi bezinwele)
  • Ukusetshenziswa kwezwe nokuhlelwa kwezindawo
  • Umshado nomthetho womkhaya (ukudivosa, ukuwinwa kwezingane)
  • Isimiso sokhetho (ukubhalisa ivote, izindawo zokuhlola)

UKhisimusi Ongalawuleki: Lapho Kubusa Umthetho Wesifunda

ISiphakamiso VI soMthetho-sisekelo siqukethe u-Claus , omemezela ukuthi uMthetho-sisekelo, imithetho kahulumeni, nezivumelwano yi-"UMthetho ophakeme weZwe" lokhu kusho ukuthi lapho imithetho kahulumeni nohulumeni iphikisana, futhi umthetho kahulumeni umthetho kahulumeni kumelwe uphumele. Ukukhululwa kwe-Federal kungachazwa (u-Conreference ngokuqondile uhlose ukuthatha umthetho kazwelonke) noma usho ukuthi (isicwangciso sokulawula sawomthetho kahulumeni sibanzi sibanzi kangangokuba asishiyi ndawo yesenzo sikahulumeni).

Nokho, iSupremacy Claus ayiyenzi ingasebenzi ngokuzenzekelayo yonke imithetho kahulumeni. Izinkantolo kumelwe kuqala zinqume ukuthi uhulumeni kahulumeni usebenze ngokoqobo phakathi kwemibuso yawo ebaliwe. Uma umthetho kahulumeni udlula lawomandla, awunakukwazi ukunquma umthetho kahulumeni owehliswa. Lesi simiso sasisemqoka ekuhlaziyweni kweNkantolo Ephakeme iNational Federation of Independent Business v. Sebelius (20:2) , lapho iNkantolo isekela khona i-Afford Care Act njengomthetho wokwehla intela kodwa yashaya ilungiselelo ebeliboshelwa ukuba landise uMididia ngaphansi kosongo lokulahlekelwa yimali ekhona.

Amandla Amanje: Igunya Elihlanganyelwayo

Imisebenzi eminingi kahulumeni isetshenziswa yibo bobabili ohulumeni bezwe nohulumeni. lamandla ahambisanayo ahlanganisa ikhono lokukhokha intela, ukuboleka imali, ukwakha imigwaqo, amabhange omthetho-mthetho, nokuphoqelela imithetho. Uma womabili amazinga enza, i-Supremacy Claus eqinisekisa ukuthi umthetho kahulumeni u-System u-mouse u-mouse uma engavumelani.

Isibonelo esivelele intela. Bobabili uhulumeni wezwe nemibuso bangaphoqa izintela zemali. Kodwa umthetho wentela kahulumeni uvame ukuthatha indawo yomthetho kahulumeni, futhi izifundazwe azinakukhokha intela yezindawo zikahulumeni ngaphandle kwemvume. Ngokufanayo, zombili zingalawula ezentengiselwano, kodwa uhulumeni kahulumeni kuphela ongalawula ezentengiselwano zezwe ngendlela ehlukanisayo noma engafanele.

Izindawo Zanamuhla Ezinokungezwani Phakathi Kombuso Negunya Likahulumeni

Ikhulu lama-20 leminyaka liye lalwa izimpi ezinkulu ngokulingana okufanelekile kwamandla. Ngezansi kunezindawo eziyinhloko lapho imithetho kahulumeni nohulumeni iye yangqubuzana khona, ngokuvamile yenza izihloko eziphambili futhi yafinyelela eNkantolo Ephakeme.

Ukuqashelwa Ngokomthetho

Kusukela ngo-2025, ngaphezu kwengxenye yezifundazwe zase-U.S. ziye zagunyaza ukwelapha noma insangu. Kodwa ngaphansi [kwe- umlawuli owenziwe nge-Substances Act (1970), i-cannabis ihlala iyisidakamizwa sokusetshenziswa kwezidakamizwa I (i-Primeyd I-Iillegal esigamu). Lokhu kudala ukuhlukanisa okungokomthetho: izigebengu ezisemthethweni ezisebenza obala, kodwa abaqashwa nabanini bafaka engozini yokuquliswa kwemithetho ye-ocestern. I- Justicemental Department ikhiphe isiqondiso (um., i-Cole Memorital) esiphethe ngezimo ezinkulu ze-pulatime, kodwa ukuqondisa okungasuswa noma ukuphendulwa kwemithetho ye-modul. Impikiswano iphakamisa imibuzo ngemibangezo ye-mthetho ye-modult.

Imithetho Yokulawula Izibhamu

ISichibiyelo Sesibili, njengoba ichazwa yiNkantolo Ephakeme ivikela umuntu lungelo lokugcina nokuphatha izikhali v. Heller (2008) kanye ne[[FLT]] New York State Rifle & Pistol Association v. Breen (2022]]]], ivikela umuntu ngamunye ukuba agcine futhi athwale izikhali. Nokho, abaphathi aba negunya elikhulu lokulawula izibhamu phakathi kwemingcele yabo, ukulinda izikhawulo, ukuvinjelwa kwezikhali, nokufihla imithetho. Umthetho we-Frevetional Parady Hand Hand Handgal Declact Act ne-Screctory Dectivet ka-1968, imisa imithetho eyisisekelo. Uma imithetho idlulisa imithetho ehlangene noma ukubhalisa imingcele yesizinda sesizinda sesizinda sesizinda sesigaba, ilandela njalo.

Imithetho Yezokwelapha

I-Affordble Care Act (ACA) yayiwukwanda okuphawulekayo kwegunya likahulumeni ekunakekeleni impilo. Yadinga ukuba kusungulwe izimo ukuze kusungulwe imali yomshuwalense wempilo, kwandiswe iMedicaid, futhi kuvumelane nezindinganiso eziningi zikahulumeni. Izizwe eziningi zamangalela, ziphikisa i-ACA enqanyulweni yombuso. E-NFIB v. Sebelius, iNkantolo Ephakeme ivikele umbuso ngokuzenza ububanzi be-Medicaid bungancibilikisiwe khetho olungakhethi-jwayekile lapho iNkantolo ilinganisela amandla kahulumeni ngaphansi kwendishosho osetshenziswayo.

Ngalé kwe-ACA, kuvela izingxabano ngokukhishwa kwezisu. Isinqumo seNkantolo Ephakeme ku- Dobbs v. Jackson Women’s Health Organization (2022) yagumbuqela uRoe v. Wade futhi yabuyisela umbuzo wokukhishwa kwezimo zokukhipha isisu ezizweni. Kusukela ngaleso sikhathi, umsebenzi wemithetho kahulumeni ohlukene usungulile: ukuvimbela ukufinyelela noma ukukhipha isisu ngokuphelele. Uhulumeni, ngezinhlangano ezinjenge-FDA (ethi ilawula ukukhishwa kwemithi ye-mifi - listone), uyaqhubeka ufaka ithonya, kuqhubekeka ukuvinjelwa kokukhishwa kwemithi ngokuvimbela kokukhishwa kwemithi ngegunya likahulumeni ngokuphathelene lokuphepha kwezidakamizwa.

Isivikelo Sendawo Ezungezile

Izwe livame ukusebenza njengezindawo zokucwaninga ngendawo ezungezile, limise izindinganiso eziqinile kunohulumeni kahulumeni. ICalifornia, ngaphansi kweziphakamiso ze-Cease Air Act, iye yamisa izindinganiso zayo siqu zokukhipha imoto eziye zathathwa ezinye izifundazwe ezingaphezu kweziyishumi nambili. Iziphathimandla zeTrump zazama ukuxosha i-consier California, kodwa iziphathimandla ze Biden ziyibuyisa. Le-n-partl ibonisa ukuthi igunya likahulumeni lingayandisa noma lincikene izivumelwano ezisekelwe enqubeni kahulumeni.

Ngokuphambene, i-EPA Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) yezwe ingazisusa izinqumo zendawo ezungezile lapho iphula izindinganiso zesizwe. INkantolo Ephakeme [ku- West Virginia v. EPA (202) yanciphisa ikhono le-EPA lokulawula ukukhishwa kwegesi eshisayo ngokubanzi ngaphansi kwe-Ceac Air Act, iqinisa imingcele ezinhlanganweni zikahulumeni ezisebenza ngaphandle kwemvume ecacile.

Ukuthunyelwa Kwamandla Okufuduka

Ukufuduka ngokwesiko kuyindawo kahulumeni kahulumeni, kodwa amazwe aseya ngokuya esebenza. Ezinye izifundazwe, njenge-Arizona, ezidluliselwe imithetho (umz. S.B. 1070) ezifuna ukuba uhulumeni namaphoyisa endawo ahlole isimo sokufuduka phakathi nokumiswa okungokomthetho. INkantolo Ephakeme, e-Arizona v. United States (202)[FLT] [[FLT]], ishaye izinhlelo eziningana njengokudedelwa umthetho kahulumeni kodwa yashiya "ngibonise amaphephandaba akho" angenaphutha. Ezinye izifunda zomhlaba, kuhlanganise ne-Texas, ziye zazama ukuvimbela imithetho yendlu engcwele yedolobha noma ukubambisana neziphathimandla zezezokufuduko. Lemithetho iyaqhubeka ibhekene nezinselele zomthetho womthetho - ngokomthetho.

Indima Yomculi Ekuxazululeni Imizabalazo Yamandla

Inkantolo isebenza njengendatshana ezimpikiswaneni zikahulumeni. INkantolo Ephakeme, ikakhulukazi, iye yakhipha izinqumo eziye zaqinisa futhi zanciphisa amandla kahulumeni.

Izibonelo eziyinhloko zihlanganisa:

  • McCulloch v Maryland (1819): yamisa ukuphakama komthetho kahulumeni nemfundiso yamandla ayisigungu.
  • Gibbons v. Ogden (1824): Ichaza kakhulu isisho sezentengiselwano, inikeza iziKhongolo-mkhandlu eziseduze ne-lenary igunya lokuhamba ngemikhumbi ephakathi kwezwe.
  • United States v. Lopez (1995): Okokuqala emashumini eminyaka, kwagadla umthetho kahulumeni (iSiphakamiso seSikole Sezentengiselwano seGun-Free) njengamandla ezentengiselwano adlulayo eKhongolo, avuselela imingcele egunya likahulumeni.
  • Shicilelaz v. United States (1997): Yaqaphela ukuthi uhulumeni kahulumeni kahulumeni ngeke ayale izikhulu zikahulumeni eziphethe ukuba ziqondise izimiso zokuqondisa (isimiso se-"anti-commanding") kahulumeni).
  • Dobbs v. Jackson Women’s Health (202): Umthetho ophinde wakhishwa kwesisu ubuyele ezifundazweni, omelela enye yezinguquko ezibaluleke kakhulu egunyeni likahulumeni emashumini eminyaka.

Imfundiso emelene nokuyalwa ibaluleke kakhulu embusweni wanamuhla. Ivimbela izishaya-mthetho zikahulumeni ukuba zifune izishaya-mthetho zikahulumeni ukuba zidlulise imithetho ethile noma abaphathi bakahulumeni ukuze ziphoqelele izinqubo zikahulumeni. Lesimiso siye savikela amazwe ekuphoqelelweni ukuba asebenzise izijeziso zezwe ezivalelwe ukufuduka noma izisekelo zesizinda.

Ikusasa LobuFande

Izimo eziningana zithonya ukuziphendukela kwemvelo okuqhubekayo kobuhlobo besifundazwe nohulumeni. Eyokuqala ukuhlaziywa ohulumeni bezwe. Njengoba amagophe kahulumeni wezwe, amazwe aye aba alukhuni kakhulu ezindaweni ezingokomthetho kusukela ekuzinzeni kwe-Consumer Inficial Act (i-Consumer Act ka-Commercial) ukuya kumthetho wezembutho (imithetho ye-Texas ne-Florida ebhekisa ukuhlolwa kwezindawo zobucukubheki).

Ukuthambekela okukwesibili ukukhula kwemali esetshenziswa uhulumeni enemibandela: IziKhomishane zinikeza izinhlangano imali yokuxhasa izinhlelo ezinjengemigwaqo emikhulu noma iMedicaid, kodwa zihlanganisa izimo. Amazwe kumelwe avume lezozimo noma alahle imali. INkantolo Ephakeme eNFIB v. uSebelius walinganisela lomandla lapho izimo zidlula emgqeni wokuphoqelela.

Okwesithathu, ukuphakama kwe-compactss yase sifundeni sezwe eliphakathi, qhaqha indlela yokuba izifundazwe zivumelane ngezindaba ezifana nekhabhoni noma ukulondeka kwetheku ngaphandle kokulinda isenzo sikahulumeni. Le mitayela idinga imvume yesivumelwano senhlangano kodwa ingakha izimiso ezibophayo zesifunda ezisebenza ngokuphumelelayo njengezivumelwano zesigaba sikahulumeni.

Kukamuva, ubuchwepheshe nokwaziswa kuvela njengezindawo ezintsha zempi. Ama-Illinois (I-Bometric Information Access) ne-Virginia (Consumer Data Protection Act) ziye zasungula imithetho yemfihlo edlula izindinganiso zikahulumeni. Izinkampani zivame ukukhononda ngokuthi ukuvumelana nemibuso eminingi yombuso kunzima, kodwa abasekeli baphikisa ukuthi iMikhandlu yombuso eqalile ukuba ithathe isinyathelo.

Isiphetho

Ubuhlobo phakathi kwegunya lombuso namandla kahulumeni buyisici esinamandla nesivame ukuphikisana sokubusa kwaseMelika. Akuwona umngcele omisiwe kodwa uhlelo oluphilayo oluvumelana nezinguquko zomthetho-sisekelo, izinqumo zeNkantolo Ephakeme, nezenzo zezombangazwe. Izakhamuzi eziqonda indima yesigaba ngasinye sikahulumeni zihlonyiselwe kangcono ukuhlanganyela ezimpikiswaneni zesimiso nokusekela amalungelo azo ngokuphumelelayo.

Kungakhathaliseki ukuthi inkinga insangu, izibhamu, ukunakekelwa kwempilo, noma indawo ezungezile, umbuzo obalulekile awufani: ubani owenza imithetho? Impendulo ayixhomekile nje kuphela kulokho uMthetho-sisekelo okushoyo kodwa futhi nendlela thina njengesizwe, silinganisela ngayo izindinganiso zobunye besizwe nenkululeko yendawo. Njengoba iSiphendu seshumi sisikhumbuza, amandla angaphathiwe i-United States ezindaweni(noma kubantu). Leso sabelo siyindlela yokusekela ubuzwe baseMelika, futhi sifanelekile ukuvikela.