Isisekelo Esingokomlando Sokungahlangani KoMbusi

Imfundiso yokuvikela ubukhosi ingenye yezimiso ezihlala njalo neziphikiswana kakhulu kumthetho waseMelika. Isekelwe emazwini esiNgisini senkathi ephakathi ukuthi "inkosi ayinakwenza okungalungile,"" lemfundiso ngokomlando yayivimbela noma yisiphi isenzo esingokomthetho ngokumelene nombusi ngaphandle kwemvume eqinile kambusi. Lomqondo wesisekelo wanqamula i-Atlantic namakoloni futhi wafakwa eMelika e-jurisprudence, nakuba inezici eziphawulekayo ezibonisa ukubusa kwe-Riphabliki.

E-United States, ukuvikela kombuso kusebenza kokubili emazingeni kahulumeni nakahulumeni, kodwa isivikelo esinikezwa amazwe sinamandla kakhulu. Isichibiyelo seshumi nanye somthetho-sisekelo wase-U.S., esagunyazwa ngo-1795, sisebenza njengetshenda likamthetho-mthetho eliqinile lokuvikela uhulumeni ezinkantolo zikahulumeni. I-mende inikeza: "Amandla omthetho wombuso we-United States ngeke athathwe ukuba adluliselwe kunoma isiphi isinyathelo emthethweni noma ukulingana, asungulwe noma amangalelwe izakhamuzi zase-United States, noma abekwe izakhamuzi zezwe elithile, noma izakhamuzi noma izihloko zanoma isiphi isifundazwe samazwe sangaphandle."Nkathiwawunikeza ububanzi be-Equat Courtment, i-Estertment ichaza isimiso sesimiso sokuzingagobendezenzisayo esizi sezilungele ukuthwala izakhamuzi ezithile zesizwe.

Isichibiyelo Seshumi Nanye Nencazelo Yaso Ephuthumayo

Emlandweni omningi waseMelika, iSichibiyelo seshumi nanye seSichibiyelo sekhulu leminyaka (1890), saqondwa ukuthi sinqabela kuphela izakhamuzi zezinye izizwe noma izizwe zakwamanye amazwe. Nokho, le ncazelo yanwetshwa kakhulu ngasekupheleni kwekhulu leshumi elinethoba. Hans v. Louisiana [1890]), iNkantolo ePhakathi yeNkantolo ePhakathi yeSimende seSimendo yathiyedwa ivimbela futhi imvume yesizwe esivela enkantolo yombuso, kungakhathaliseki ukuthi izakhamuzi zayo zihlala enkantolo ephethe. INkanto yanquma ukuthi le mithetho iveza isimiso sobukhosi sombuso esivimbela noma isiphi isibopho sokumelana nesinqumo sombuso ngaphandle kwemvume yayo. Lesi sinqumo sokugomela isikhulu senkantolo secala secala senkantolo enkantolo yombuso, kungakhathaliseki ukuthi izakhamuzi zezakhamuzi zezakhamuzi zezwe.

Izinqumo ezilandelayo ziqinise lesi sici futhi zasifaka lukhuni. ku-Ex Parte Young (08), iNkantolo yaqopha ukukhipha indiva okunzima: isuti ngokumelene nezikhulu zikahulumeni ukuze kutholakale inkululeko eqhubekayo yokulungisa ukuphulwa komthetho kahulumeni okuqhubekayo kuvumelekile, ngisho noma umbuso ngokwawo ungenakukhohliswa. Lemfundiso ivumela izimemezelo ezisobala ukuba zibeke inselele izenzo zombuso izikhulu zikahulumeni amagama anjengezimangalelwa, idala indlela ebalulekile yokufaka amalungelo omthetho. Umehluko phakathi kwemasuthi kuhulumeni (ovunyiwe) namasuntswana ombuso (evusezimweni ezithile) uhlala uyisicishicize esiyinhloko sokungagodliwe.

INkantolo yanamuhla ePhakeme kakhulu iye yaqhubeka icwengisisa izinga lokuzivikela kombuso. Kuwo 1990, iRehnquist Court yakhipha uchungechunge lwezinqumo ezaqinisa kakhulu ukuvikeleka kwesizwe kumasudi ngaphansi kwemithetho kahulumeni. Amacala anjenge SAMINOLE FORYUME VERY of Florida v. [1969] [[FLT]] [FLT]] kanye [FLT]] [alden v. Maine [1999] [iibambe ukuthi uHulumend sholo alunayo igunya ngaphansi kweSiphaka-mthetho I somthetho womthetho womthetho, ngisho nalapho wenza ukuphoqelelwa kwelungelo lomthetho womthetho wombuso wezwe. Lezi zinqubela ikhono lokuphula imithetho yemithetho yesizwe enjenge-Activessss Activement, ngaphandle kwe-Activemouthorivement, i-oggne

Imikhuba Yesikhathi Esizayo Kuhulumeni OnguMbusi

Naphezu kwesivikelo esikhulu esinikezwa yiSichibiyelo Seshumi Nanye nencazelo yaso yokwahlulela, eminyakeni yamuva kuye kwaba noshintsho oluphawulekayo endleleni imibuso evikela ngayo ubukhosi. Lemiqondo ibonisa ukuqaphela okwandayo ukuthi ukugonywa ngokuphelele kungaveza ukungabi nabulungisa, ikakhulukazi ezimweni ezihilela ukwephulwa kwamalungelo omphakathi, ukuziphatha okubi kukahulumeni, nezimpikiswano zezivumelwano. Izinkantolo nezishaya - mthetho ngokufanayo ziye zabonisa ukuzimisela ukulinganisela phakathi kokuvikela ubukhosi bombuso nokuqinisekisa ukulandisa.

Ama - waiver Ayandisiwe Nesivumo Sokugqoka

Enye yentuthuko ebaluleke kakhulu emthetho wokuzivikela komthetho ozimele i-athority owenyulwa yizigwegwe zomthetho. Izifundazwe eziningi ziye zamisa umthetho ovumela ngokuphandle ukuvumelana nezigaba ezithile zezindaba. Laba bahluli bavame ukutholakala kuhulumeni bethi bayazisho izenzo, imithetho yemisebenzi, nemithetho yamalungelo abantu. Ngokwesibonelo, uhulumeni omukela izimali zikahulumeni zohlelo oluthile ungabalelwa ukuthi unesimiso esivimbela ukumelana nokuvinjelwa okungalawulwa yimithetho ebusa leyo simiso. INkantolo Ephakeme ikholelwa ukuthi abavikeli besimiso sokuvikela imingcele kumelwe babe "abangamele bakhululi abachaziyo," okusho ukuthi izishaya umthetho kumelwe basebenzise ulimi olucacile nolucacile ukuze bavume ukuvumelana.

Izinkantolo zikahulumeni ziye zafeza indima ekwandiseni izimfundiso eziphikisayo. Abanye abahluleli bombuso baye bachaza ulimi lwemithetho oludidayo oludidayo ukuze bavumele izisuti kuvelane nombuso lapho injongo yomthetho yokunqanda ukunqanda izikhali icacile khona. Lokhu kuvame kakhulu ezizweni lapho ijaji liye lathatha khona indlela ekhululekile yokusingatha icala likahulumeni. Umphumela uwumsebenzi ohlukanisayo wemibuso elwayo ezweni lonke, namanye amazwe anikeza ukufinyelela okukhulu ezindaweni ezisezweni ezizimele kanye nezinye isivikelo esiqinile.

Ukuzitika Kwabantu Nokulinganiselwa Kwamandla Obumbano

Nakuba iNkantolo ePhakamileyo ilinganiselwe ikhono lombuso wokuvikela uhulumeni ozimele ngaphansi kwe-Artic I, iye yaqaphela ukuthi uMkhandlu ungase ulwelwe ngokusemthethweni ngaphansi kweSigaba 5 seSichibiyelo se-14th. Lomehluko uye waveza ukuhlaziywa okukhulu ukuthi imigaqo ethile kahulumeni ihlanganisa ukuqeqeshwa okusemthethweni kwamandla eSigabeni sesi 5. [Lesi] sstelee v. [20]] [2004]), iNkantolo isekela ukusebenza kwe-Melika enobunzima enkantolo, ithola ukuthi i-Congressstingss zinobufakazi obanele bokungahlawulwa kwabantu abakhubazekile ukuze bathethelele ukukhubazeka. Ngokuphambene, [FLT:] BB] Bhadedadate of the University of Accumetic Acception.[2] [2] [2001] ISig.A.S.A. i-S.

Lomkhakha womthetho usalokhu unamandla, nezimpikiswano eziqhubekayo eziphathelene namandla ombuso wokuphoqelela iSichibiyelo seshumi nane. Ukuhlola kweNkantolo "ukuvumelana nokulinganisela" kudinga ukuba umthetho kahulumeni wokukhipha imvume uhloselwe ukulungisa noma ukuvimbela ukuphulwa komthetho ngokomthetho ongokoqobo yimibuso. Lendinganiso ikwenze kwaba nzima ngemithetho yokuba kube nesibopho sokuthatha izikhawu ngaphansi kwezinhlelo ezinkulu zikahulumeni zokulawula, kuyilapho ukuvumela ukungenela okunqunyelweyo lapho ubufakazi bokungalawuleki kombuso bubhalwe kahle.

Ukuqulwa Kwecala Lasesifundazweni Nokungahlangani

Nakuba iSichibiyelo seshumi nanye sibusa ngokuqondile kuphela ukuqulwa kwenkantolo kahulumeni, izifunda zazo siqu ezivikelayo ezisebenza ezinkantolo zikahulumeni. Ezinye izifundazwe ziye zamisa izinguquko zomthetho-sisekelo noma imithetho elinganisela ngokuphawulekayo izinga lokuvikeleka kobukhosi ezimisweni zazo zokwahlulela. Ngokwesibonelo, imibuso eminingana iye yaqeda ukuvikela kobuso becala ngenxa yokufuna ukunqanda ukubulala, ngaphansi kwemithetho evimbela ukulimala. Amanye amazwe aye alondoloza ukuvikeleka njengomthetho owembukwahlulekayo kodwa adala ukuhluka kakhulu kwezinhlobo ezithile zezimfuno, njengalezo ezibangelwa ukusebenza kwezimoto, imisebenzi yomphakathi, noma ukusebenza ngokwezelulekwa kwezempilo ezikhungweni zezempilo ezizimele.

Ukuthambekela ezinkantolo eziningi zikahulumeni bekuwukuncishiswa kwesimiso sokuzivikela nokuthola amakhambi andayo. Izinkantolo eziphakeme zikahulumeni ezindaweni ezinjengeKentucky, Wisconsin, ne-Ohio ziye zakhipha izinqumo ezinciphisa ukuvikela komthetho, zishukumisela ukusabela komthetho ekubekeni imingcele noma engeziwe ekuvimbeleni imfundiso. Lomsebenzi wezinga eliphansi kahulumeni ngokuvamile awutholi ukunakekela kwesizwe kakhulu kunezinqumo zeNkantolo ePhakeme kakhulu kodwa unethonya elikhulu emikhankasweni yohulumeni bombuso namalungelo ezakhamuzi ukufuna ukuvuselelwa izingozi ezihlobene nohulumeni.

Izinguquko Zezwe Nentuthuko Ephawulekayo

Kulo lonke izwe, izishaya-mthetho zikahulumeni ziye zamisa izinguquko ezivikela ulwembu lwesimiso sokuzivikela komzimba. Lezinguquko zihluka kakhulu ngokobukhulu nangomphumela, zibonisa impucuko ehlukile yezomthetho kahulumeni ngamunye, amandla ezombangazwe, nomlando. Izibonelo ezilandelayo zibonisa uhide lwezindlela zokuhlola ezithathweyo.

California

ICalifornia sekuyisikhathi eside ingumholi ekuvimbeleni ukuvikela kobuso bomthetho. I-Footort Accountings Act imisa umkhokhisi omkhulu wokuzivikela ekulimaleni obangelwa izisebenzi zikahulumeni ezisebenza ngaphakathi kwemisebenzi yazo. Izinguquko zamuva ziye zandisa isibopho, ikakhulukazi ezindaweni zamalungelo omphakathi nokucwaswa kwemisebenzi. I-Hulumeni i-Fountains Act idinga abaxhasi ukuba bakhiphe iziphakamiso kuhulumeni phakathi kwesikhathi esifushane kodwa bavumele ukululama okukhulu uma ukuzisholo kuphumelela. Inkantolo zamazwe zisho ukuthi i-Fair Rooled ne-House Act (FA) igwema ngokusobala ngenxa yokucwaswa kwemisebenzi, ivumela izisebenzi zikahulumeni ukuba zikhokhise izikhalazo zosizo, izimali zosizo, nezimali zabameli. Inkantolo zasebuthelela lezi zivume ukukhokhwaswe yizikhulu zenkantolo ze-Australia.

INew York

Indlela yokuzimela izikhali ezizimele yenzeka ngokuphawulekayo kokubili ngesenzo somthetho-mthetho nangencazelo yokwahlulela. INkantolo yaseNew York Yezithiyo imisa umngcele wezinga elithile lokuzithethelela, kuhlanganise nalabo abavela ekunganakini, ukuphulwa kwesivumelwano, nomthetho-togn torts. Izinguquko zamuva zemithetho yemithetho ziye zandisa iziphakamiso zokuthiwa okuhlobene nokungalungi komthetho, kuhlanganise nokuhlukunyezwa ngokobulili, ukucwaswa, nokunganaki ezikhuthazweni zikahulumeni ezisebenzayo. Izwe liye lafaka futhi amalungiselelo akhethekile okuvimbela ukukhutshwa kwezenzo zezenzwe zepholi likahulumeni nezokulungisa. Izinkantolo zamuva kwe-New York ziye zabonisa ukuzimisela ukuthola iziphakamiso eziqondeneyo eziqondeneyo ezihlolweni zemithetho ezenza izenzo zokulwa kwezwezwe, ikakhulukazi lapho kungekho zindlela zokulwa kwezindawo ezisebenza ngokumelene nezweyo.

Texas

ITexas ilondoloze isivikelo esiqinile sokuzivikela komzimba, kodwa umsebenzi womthetho wamuva nje usungule i-Acts Acts accessivess ekuvimbeleni okuthile okuvela ekusebenzeni kwezimoto, ukukhubazeka kwezakhiwo, nokulimala okubangelwa izisebenzi zikahulumeni ezisebenza phakathi komsebenzi wazo. Nokho, umonakalo uncitshisiwe ngokwezinga eliphansi kakhulu, futhi izigaba eziningi zemali ezifunwayo zihlala zivaliwe ngokuphelele. Naphezu kwalezi zinguquko, iTexas Legistraslatures yadlulisela izinguquko ezinkulu ezandisa abaxhaphazi bemali abahlobanayo ngenxa yokuhlaselwa ngokobulili nokuhlukunyezwa okwenziwa yizisebenzi zikahulumeni. Ngaphezu kwalokho, izinkantolo ze-Texas ziye zaqaphela ukuthi ukuvikelwa izivumelwano, okungenani ngokwezinga elidingekile ekudilikeni kwesivumelwano. Naphezu kwalezi zinguquko, izifunda kakhulu phakathi kwezifunda ezise-Texas, lapho zifika izikhundla zezelele ekuhloni kwezindawo eziphambili, futhi zibhekene.

IFlorida

Icebo lokuzivikela lobuso baseFlorida lihlanganisa umphamba wesigebengu we-Frial nomthetho obalulekile. I-Tort Actiess act idla ngokuvikelwa kwemithetho ye-tort kodwa iphoqa isambatho esiqinile samaR240 000 ngecala elilahliwe futhi i-aggreate cap (R740 000) egqumeni ngalinye. Lezi zikepisi ziye zaba yindaba yokuvinjelwa okukhulu, ngemithetho ephikisayo ukuthi bashaya umthetho umthetho izivikelo zokungena ezinkantolo futhi i-aye-lungelo lokungenela icala. INkantolo Ephakeme yaseFlorida isekele izikhothathu emotweni eziningi kodwa iye yaqaphela ukuthi inqaba lapho imvume yokuvikelwa kwemithetho izindleko esemthethweni isemthethweni ikhona. Imizamo yamuva yokuphakamisa izigeqephulwa kwemithetho iye yahluleka, ishiya iFlorida kanye nenye yomonakalo oluphansi kakhulu ezweni ngenxa yezwezwezwezwezwezwezwe liyizwe icala.

Illinois

I-Illinois yamukela uhlelo olubanzi lwezokuzivikela kombuso nge-Illinois Court of Ancents Act ne-Illinois State Lawsuit Immuny Act. Isimiso sombuso sokunqanda ukuhloba kwe-tort, izivumelwano, kanye neziphakamiso ezithile zemithetho, kodwa zonke iziphakamiso ezimelene nombuso kumelwe zingeniswe eNkabeni ekhethekile yezikhululo kunasezinkantolo ezivamile zokuqulwa. Lesimiso esisenkabeni sivumela ukusetshenziswa okungaguquguquki kwemithetho yokuvikela kodwa singadala izinselele ze-partiffs arcessicals auto akumelwe isebenzise i-produal forumum. Izinguquko zamuva e-Illinois ziye zagxila ekutholeni imvume yokuthola amalungelo abantu, kuhlanganise nemithetho ekhethekile yokuzimela ukuvinjwa kwemithetho ye-Illinoisnome Actstions Act.

Washington

IWashington State iye yathatha indlela enkulu kakhulu yokuvimbela ukuvikela uhulumeni ekuzimelangeni. I-Tort Actions Act iphazamisa kakhulu ukulimala okubangelwa izisebenzi zikahulumeni, futhi izinkantolo zikahulumeni ziye zachaza umxhaphazi oyekelelayo ngokuphandle ukufinyelela imisebenzi eminingi kahulumeni. IWashington futhi ivumela ukujeziswa kwecala emacaleni athile amelene nombuso, ikhambi elinqabela ngokusobala ukuthi amanye amazwe amaningi avimbele. Izwe liye lamisa ababulali abathile abathile ekutheni kuvela ekuziphatheni okubi kwamaphoyisa, izimo zasejele, nokungalawuleki kwezelapha ezikhundleni zikahulumeni. Ukuthatha kwesinqumo kwemithetho kubonisa isahlulelo sokuthi isifunda sinecala lokulimala okubangelwa yizisebenzi zaso futhi ukuzivikela kufanele kube yile ngaphandle komthetho.

Imisebenzi Ewusizo Kwabaphangi Nezimiso

Ukuqonda imingcele engokomthetho yamanje engokomthetho kubalulekile kunoma ubani ocabangela ukumangalela inhlangano ethile kahulumeni, kanye nezikhulu zikahulumeni ezifuna ukulawula ingozi yokuzifaka engozini.

Ukucabangela Okufanele Ekudingiseni Umbuso

Kubantu abachaphazelekayo abacabangela ukulahlwa kwemithetho, umbuzo wokuqala uwukuthi uhulumeni uye wawaphula yini amasu okuvikela ukuphikisa kwempikiswano. Lokhu kudinga ukuhlaziywa kokucophelela kwezimiso zikahulumeni, izinhlelo zomthetho-mthetho, kanye nomthetho wezendaba. Ngisho nalapho ukugonyelwa kwezikhali kunqanyulwe, ama-paltiff kumelwe avumelane nezimfuneko eziqinile, kuhlanganise nezimiso zokuqaphela, imithetho yokulinganisela, nokuphelelwa amandla kwezindlela zokulawula. Izifunda eziningi zidinga ukuphonsa izimemezelo zesaziso phakathi nenkathi emfushane [1] Ngokuvamile ezingu-90 kuya ku-180 ukuya ku-18. Ukuhluleka ukumelana nalezi zimfuneko kungaphumela ekulahlweni ngisho noma ukuzisho okungaphansi kufanelekile.

Amajaji kumelwe acabangele futhi i-fonsom lapho icala lizobekwa khona. Kwezinye izifundazwe, ukumangalela umbuso kumelwe kulethwe enkantolo ekhethekile, njengenkantolo yokuzisholo, kuyilapho kwezinye ziqhubeka ezinkantolo ezivamile zokuqulwa kwecala. Ukuba khona kwecala labahluleli nakho kuyahluka ngokwezwe, kanye namanye amazwe avumela ukuqulwa kwecala ngokumelene nombuso futhi amanye aqhubeke ngokuqulwa kuphela ngebhentshi. Ekugcineni, amajaji kumelwe anikeze izaba zomonakalo nezinye imingcele ekululameni, okunganciphisa ngisho nokubaluleka kwezinga elinamandla kakhulu.

Indima Kahulumeni Isho Ukuthi Izenzo

Izenzo zikahulumeni zokuzisholo izenzo eziyinqubo eyinhloko ethi igwema ukunganaki nezinye izinqanda. Lemithetho ivumela ukulimala komuntu siqu, ukulimala kwempahla, nokufa okungalungile okubangelwa izisebenzi zikahulumeni ezisebenza emsebenzini wazo. Nokho, izikhulu eziningi zesifundazwe zihlanganisa izenzo ezihlukene kakhulu ezivikela izivikelo zokuziphatha ezithile, njengezinqumo eziqondile, amatort, kanye neziphakamiso ezivela ekusebenziseni imisebenzi kahulumeni engokomthetho njengemithetho egunyaza umthetho noma ukugcinwa kwemithetho.

Umehluko phakathi kwemisebenzi enqunyiwe neyokukhonza ubaluleke kakhulu ekulweleni ukuvikela kobukhosi. Izinkantolo zivame ukugomela ukuthi iziphi iziphetho ezizohlolwa ngokunqunyelwa. (izikhulu zikahulumeni) labo abahlanganisa isahlulelo senqubo noma ukukhetha) kanti ukugonyelwa kwezimiso zokukhonza (izinto ezihilela inqubo, imisebenzi engadiscirnation. Lomehluko uye wabangela ukuba kube ne-ligita enkulu, nezinkantolo ezizama kakhulu ukunquma ukuthi iziphi izenzo zenhlangano eziseqenjini ngalinye. Ukuthambekela ezizweni eziningi bekunganciphisa izinga lezinga lokuvikela izikhali ezihlakaniphile, kudinga izisebenzi zikahulumeni ukuba zisebenzise izahlulelo ezisemithethweni enengqondo.

Ithonya Ekwandiseni Amalungelo Omphakathi

Umthetho wobuMbusi wokuzivikela unamandla aqondile ekuphoqelelweni kwamalungelo omphakathi kohulumeni bezwe. Umthetho kahulumeni wamalungelo abantu, 42 U.S.C. . 1983, uvumela abachaphazeli ukuba bamangalelwe futhi badlulise izikhulu zendawo ngenxa yokwephulwa kwamalungelo omthetho-sisekelo, kodwa umthetho awuwanqandeli umbuso ngokwawo. Ngaphansi komthetho [iSiphatho] [iSipheshawo samalungelo abantu] [[FLTLT:1] imfundiso esobala, amaphecalympic angase afune ukukhululeka okungakhokhwa ngokumelene nezikhulu zikahulumeni, kodwa ufunelayiselo oluthiwe ngaphandle kokuba uhulumeni ugwegwegwe olubi. Lo mthetho umngcele unemiphumela emikhulu kubantu abafuna ukukhokhwazwa kwemithetho engokomthetho.

Ezinye izifundazwe ziye zamisa imithetho yazo siqu enqabela ukuvinjelwa kwamalungelo abantu ukuthi ukuvinjelwa kwemithetho yokulimaza, ukwakha indlela ehambelanayo yosizo enkantolo yombuso. IBane Act yaseCalifornia ne-Illinois Civil Rights Act ziyizibonelo zemithetho ephezulu kahulumeni enikeza amakhambi alimazayo kubadlali bamazwe ngenxa yokuphulwa komthetho-mthetho. Lemithetho kahulumeni iye yabaluleke kakhulu njengoba iNkantolo Ephakeme yase-U. ilinganisela ukutholakala kwemiphumela ngaphansi kuka-1901 ngomthetho wokuzivikela nokunye ukufaneleka. Umthetho phakathi kwezwe namalungelo omphakathi uveza indawo eyinkimbinkimbi lapho abaholithiwe i-Platoff kumelwe bakhethe khona ngokucophelela ngenxa yemibono yabo engokomthetho.

Izinselele Neziqondiso Zesikhathi Esizayo Eziqhubekayo

Izindaba eziningana ezivelayo zihlobisa ikusasa lale mfundiso, okuhlobana nezigaba zezifunda kanye nezingxenye ezikuyo.

Ukuziphatha Okungafanele Kwamaphoyisa Nokulandisa Kukahulumeni

Inhlangano yesizwe yokuguqula amaphoyisa iye yaletha ukunakekela okuvuselelwe ezimfundisweni zokuvikela komthetho ezilinganisela ukulandisa kokugcinwa komthetho. Ngaphansi kwezimiso ezingokwesiko zokuvikela ukuvikela ukuzivikela komthetho, izifundazwe ngokuvamile azinakuvikeleka ekulinyazweni okubangelwa ukuziphatha okubi kwamaphoyisa ngenhloso, ngaphandle kokuba uhulumeni uye wawaphula ngokusobala amaqhinga okuvikela isimilo salokhu. Imibuso eminingi iye yasabela ngokumisa umthetho wokuthi abagomeki ekuvimbeleni kokusetshenziswa kwamaphoyisa, ukuboshwa kwamanga, nezinye izinhlobo zokuziphethe. Nokho, umonakalo nezinye imingcele kuyaqhubeka kuvimbela ukuvusehlakazeka kwezisulu zokungahambi kwamaphoyisa, futhi ukutholakala kweminxeka kweminxeba ezindaweni zikahulumeni kuhlala kulinganiselwe kakhulu.

Ukubekwa inselele kumthetho-mthetho ophikisa ukulinganiselwa kwalezokuvikeleka kuye kwathola ukulinganiselwa kwezinye izifundazwe. Abamangali baye baphikisa ngokuthi ukulimala kwezikhonkwane nemithetho evimbelayo ephelele kuphula amalungiselelo omthetho - sisekelo aqinisekisa ukungena ezinkantolo, ilungelo lokuqulwa kwejaji, nesivikelo esifanayo. Izinkantolo zoMbuso ziye zakhipha izivumelwano ezihlukene, kanye nokusekela ukulinganiselwa kwazo njengezahlulelo ezinengqondo zemithetho futhi ezinye ziwashaya njengezingavumelani nemingcele yokukhululeka. Lezi zinselele cishe ziyokhula njengoba isidingo sokulandisa kwamaphoyisa siqhubeka sikhula.

Ubuchwepheshe, Imininingwane Eyimfihlo, Nokuthembeka KukaHulumeni

Ukwanda kokusetshenziswa kobuchwepheshe ohulumeni bezwe kuphakamisa imibuzo emincane ngokuphathelene nokuvikela ubukhosi enkathini yobuchwepheshe. Njengoba amazwe eqoqa, egcina, futhi ehlaziya inqwaba yokwaziswa komuntu, ingozi yokuphuka kokwaziswa nokungahloniphi kwasese iye yaba into ebaluleke kakhulu. Amaqhawe alimalayo ezimisweni zemininingwane ezisetshenziswa uhulumeni abhekene nombuzo wokuthi ingabe uhulumeni uyakwazi yini ukuvikela imfucumfucu yemfihlo, ukuphulwa kokwaziswa, nokugoqopha okuhlobene nakho. Izenzo eziningi zikahulumeni zokuzisho zabuthelwa ngaphambi kokuvela kwe-computer, futhi ukusebenzisa kwawo ukusebenzisa ukwaziswa okuhlobene nokulimaza akuqiniseki.

Eminye imibuso iye yamisa imithetho eqondile evimbela ukuvinjelwa kokwaziswa okungaphulwayo, kuyilapho eminye iye yaphikisa ukuthi iziphakamiso ezinjalo zingaphakathi kwemisebenzi engokwesiko ehlukile ngenxa yemisebenzi engokomthetho noma i-torts. Umphumela walezi zimo uyoba nemiphumela emikhulu ezisusa ohulumeni ukuba bafake idolo ekulondekeni kokwaziswa futhi bamukele izivikelo eziqinile zobumfihlo. Njengoba ukuhlakanipha kokwenziwa nokwenza izinqumo okuzenzekelayo kudlanga kakhulu emikhankasweni kahulumeni, izinga lokuvikela kobukhosi ngamaphutha emithetho nemiphumela egxekayo liyovela futhi njengempikiswano ebucayi.

Umphumela Wezimo Zokuphuthuma Nezempilo Yomphakathi

Isifo se-COVOID-19 ibangele ukuhlaselwa okukhulu kohulumeni bezwe, iphakamisa imibuzo ephathelene nokuvikeleka kwezinqumo zempilo yomphakathi, iziyalezo zokuhlukaniswa kwabantu, kanye nokulawulwa kwezindawo zosizo lwempilo ezilawulwa uhulumeni. Izifundazwe eziningi zaphikisa ngokuthi izenzo zazo zivikelwe ukuzivikela kobuso, kungaba ngaphansi kwezimfundiso ezingokwesiko zokuzivikela noma ngaphansi kwemithetho elawulwayo enikeza ukuvikeleka okulinganiselwe kokusabela ngenhlekelele. Izinkantolo ziye zafinyelela iziphetho ezihlukahlukene, kanye nokusekela ukuvikeleka okukhulu komkhuhlane wezifo ezihlobene nezifo kanye nabanye abavumela ukuthatha iziphakamiso zikahulumeni ezisuka ezinqubweni ezimisiwe noma ezingoko ezingochwepheshe.

Isifo sobhadane siye sabangela izimpikiswano zemithetho ngokuphathelene nokuvikela izingozi zempilo yomphakathi. Ezinye izifundazwe ziye zamisa izinguquko ezilinganisela ukuvikeleka kwezinqumo ezenziwa ngesikhathi esiphuthumayo, ziqaphela ukuthi ohulumeni kufanele balandise ngezenzo ezibophayo noma ezingenangqondo ngisho nangezikhathi zenhlekelele. Ezinye izifundazwe ziye zandisa ukuvikeleka ukuze zivikele izikhulu zikahulumeni okwakudingeka ukuba zenze izinqumo ezinzima ngaphansi kwezimo zokungaqiniseki nokungaqiniseki. Ukulinganisela okubangelwa umbuso ngamunye kubonisa ukubhekwa kwazo kokuhweba phakathi kwecala nesidingo sokuthatha isinyathelo esiphelele sikahulumeni ezimweni eziphuthumayo.

Indima Yezinkantolo Ezizimele

INkantolo Ephakeme yase-U.S. izoqhubeka ifeza indima eyinhloko ekuchazeni imingcele engaphandle yokuzivikela kombuso. Ukuhlelwa kweNkantolo okujikelezayo kanye nendlela yayo yokubusa kuyothonya izinqumo eziphathelene nobukhulu beSichibiyelo seshumi nanye, amandla kaKhongolo ekuvikelekeni ngaphansi kweSichibiyelo seshumi Nesine, kanye nokutholakala kwe-Ex Parte Young ngaphandle. Ukumiswa kwamuva kweNkantolo kusikisela isibopho esiqhubekayo sokuvikela ubukhosi bukahulumeni, kodwa iNkantolo ibonise ukuzimisela ukuqaphela ngaphandle kwendawo lapho izinhlelo ze-mthetho kahulumeni ziklanyelwe khona ngokusobala ukuphoqelela amalungelo omthetho.

Amacala asemacaleni aphansi aphakamisa imibuzo mayelana nokusetshenziswa kobubusi bokuvikela izikhali ezizimele ekuhlanganiseni amaqoqo, amanxusa ezwe ahlukene, nezinhlangano ezenza imisebenzi esemthethweni ebekwe kuhulumeni. Lamacala azohlola imingcele yemfundiso futhi angase akhiqize isiqondiso esisha esiphawulekayo kuma-litulignt kanye nabenzi bezimiso. Ingxoxo eqhubekayo phakathi kweNkantolo Ephakeme, iSishaya-Mkhandlu, kanye nezishaya-mthetho zombuso zinquma ukubekwa komthetho wesimiso sokuzivikela kobukhosi, negatsha ngalinye likahulumeni elinikela ekulinganiseni phakathi kwenkululeko kahulumeni kanye nokulandisa komuntu ngamunye.

Njengoba amazwe eqhubeka ecwengisisa imithetho yawo yokuvikela izikhali ezizimele nezinkantolo zichaza izinga lesivikelo samanje, umthetho kulendawo uzohlala unamandla futhi uphikiswana. Kubaphathi bemithetho, nabenzi bemithetho, ukuhlala benolwazi ngezenzakalo kokubili kuhulumeni nakuwo wonke amazinga ohulumeni kubalulekile ekuqhubeni phambili uchungechunge oluyinkimbinkimbi phakathi kwesimiso sokuvikela ubukhosi nelungelo lokufuna ukuvuselelwa kuhulumeni. Umphumela walokhu kuziphendukela kwemvelo okuqhubekayo okungokomthetho uyobumba ubuhlobo phakathi kwamazwe nezakhamuzi zawo amashumi eminyaka ezayo.