Isimiso sengozi ephindwe kabili singesinye sesivikelo esidala nesihlonishwa kakhulu somthetho wobugebengu wama-Anglo - America. Sisekelwe esiGuqulweni sesihlanu soMthetho-sisekelo wase-U.S., sinikeza ukuthi akekho umuntu “ozobekwa ngaphansi kwecala elifanayo ukuze abekwe engozini yokuphila noma isitho somzimba.” Esiphakathini sakhe, umthetho uvimbela uhulumeni ekusebenziseni amandla akhe amakhulu omshushisi ukuba abeke umuntu ophindeke futhi abhekane nezilingo zokungaphathi kahle, izindleko ezingokwehlulekayo, kanye nokungalinganisiswa okungokomzwelo kokukhanya okungapheli. Nokho, uma ukwakheka kolwelwesi oluqinile, ukuchaza okungathandeki, nezicupho ezicuthayo, ikakhulukazi uma uzama ukuqunga ehlulele isigwebo kodwa kuxaka kabi.

Imisuka Engokomlando Yengozi Embaxa - mbili

Ukwenqatshelwa kokufakwa kwezingozi ezimbili kulandela uhlu lwawo lomthetho wamaRoma futhi kamuva kumthetho wamaNgisi ovamile wezimfundiso ze u-autrefois console kanye ne- umlawuli wecala [ uqinisekisa ukuthi ummangalelwa usekhululiwe kakade noma walahlwa icala elifanayo lomthetho. UMariya v wafaka lesisivikelo enqabeni lokuvikela amandla ombuso. Ngokuhamba kwesikhathi, i-U.S. iNkantolo ephakeme yandisa isivikelo esiphindiwe kabili esivela ezifundeni ku-145 ye-Grandmentation Clauska ([FLD]4]]) futhi ingekho phutha. UMaryv.[FLD][FT], 395], u-1964, umthetho wecala elinguwokusebenza kakhulu kwezeze-Inqulu.

Lapho Ingozi Igcotshwa

Ngaphambi kokuhlaziya amakhambi angalungile, kubalulekile ukuqonda ukuthi izingozi zihlangana kanjani neselelesi esiqhubeka. Ekuqulweni kwecala, izingozi zifakwa lapho ijaji lifungele futhi libekwa endaweni eyodwa. Ekuqulweni kwecala ebhentshi, linamathela lapho ufakazi wokuqala efukwa. Uma ukuqulwa kwecala noma ukuvunywa kwecala kuxoshwa ngaphambi kwalowo mzuzu (ngokwesibonelo, ngokuzama ukuqulwa kwecala) ukuxoshwa kuka-$"ummangalelwa kamuva kungaphinde kukhishwe ngaphandle kwengozi ephindwe kabili. Ngokuhlukile, lapho izingozi sezihlangene, noma ikuphi ukukhishwa kobufakazi ngaphandle kwesinqumo sokugcina kungaphakamisa imibuzo eyingozi engathi sína.

Amaphutha: Ukuhlangana Okubucayi

Icala elingalungile liwukuqedwa kwecala ngaphambi kokuba kufinyelelwe isinqumo, ngokuvamile ngenxa yephutha elingokomthetho, ukuziphatha okubi, ukufa kwejaji, noma ijaji eliboshwe ngecala. Umbuzo oyinhloko kuzo zonke izinqubo ezingalungile ukuthi uhulumeni angamphikisa yini ummangalelwa. Impendulo ixhomeke ekutheni ubani othathele isigwebo esingafanele nokuthi isidingo saso sasingu-"i."

Amanga Amenyezelwa Ngemvume Yalo Mlweli

Uma ummangalelwa evuma ukuthatha i-partial trium (noma, ngokuvamile, evuma kakhulu, i-octive display yengozi iyasuswa. Ngokuvuma, ummangalelwa uthathwa njengoye walahla isivikelo somthetho-sisekelo. Ngokwesibonelo, uma ummeli ovikelayo ethola ukuthi ufakazi womshushisi ongazange avume futhi abekelwe icala elibi, ummeli angase athathe ishende lecala. Uma egunyaziwe, uhulumeni angaliphikisa icala. Nokho, ezinye izinkantolo zihlolisisa ukuthi imvume impela yayiyibobo abavolontiwa, ikakhulukazi uma ummangalelwa engavumelani ngokwakhe noma ephoqelelwa ukuba abekwe icala elingafanele umshushisi ohloniphekile ahloselwe ukusola icala elingafanele.

Amanga Amenyezelwa Inkantolo Ngenxa Yomlweli Wamangalela

Lona umba ophikisana kakhulu. Uma inkantolo imemezela ukuthi kuqulwe amacala angalungile ngaphandle kwemvume yommangalelwa, izingozi eziphindwe kabili ziyophinde zifake izaba zokuqulwa futhi ngaphandle kokuba “kube khona isidingo” sokuqulwa kwecala. Igama elithi“isidingo esikhulu” lachazwa okokuqala [ United States v. Perez, 22 U.S. 579 [1824], lapho iNkantolo Ephakeme yayikholelwa khona ukuthi inkantolo elengayo iyisibonelo esivelele sokubonakala. Eminyakeni eminingi, iNkantolo iye yagcizelela ukuthi amandla okumemezela amaphutha okuqulwa kufanele asetshenziswe ngokuncishiswayo futhi asetshenziswe kuphela ezicaleni zeze “zingeni eliphezulu lokuswela. [[FLD:][F2] [FNT] [5]

Hung Jury

Isibonelo esisobala sokufuna ukuboniswa kwesidingo yijaji elibika ukuthi alinakufinyelela isahlulelo `a' esilengiswe.' Ezimweni ezinjalo, umahluleli wecala angamemezela ukumangalelwa ngephutha kommangalelwa, futhi uhulumeni angamphikisa ummangalelwa. Isizathu siwukuthi isithakazelo somphakathi sokuba kube necala eliphelele, kuhlanganise ukuba nokwenzeka kwecala uma ubufakazi bugunyaza isithakazelo sommangalelwa ekugwemeni icala lesibili. Inkantolo ngokuvamile inikeza abahluleli abahluleli obanzi kulendawo, nakuba uma umahluleli kungamelwe enze ngokuphazimasa noma ngokuphoqelelwa.

Ukumangalela Okungafanele

Impikiswano enzima kakhulu iphakama lapho umshushisi ephoqelela ukuba kuqulwe icala elingafanele. Uma umshushisi ngamabomu eqhuba ummangalelwa ukuba ahambele ecaleni elingafanele (ngokwesibonelo), ngokubuza ngokuphindaphindiwe imibuzo engafanelekile − u-re-projectus. Icala eliphambili yile Orgon v. Kennedy, 456 U.S. 667 (1982), lapho iNkantolo Ephakeme ikholelwa ukuthi izingozi eziphindwe kabili ziphinde zabekwa futhi uma umshushisi ehloselwe ukuvusa impikiswano. Ukunganaki nje noma ngisho nokunganaki okubi kakhulu akwanele. Lokhu kukwenza kube nzima kubamangalelwa ukuba baphumelele, kodwa lapho ukuhlukulwa kwemizwa okungacunukile kuhlangane, inqaba encike kakhulu.

Ezinye Izimo

Kusobala futhi ukuthi kuyimfuneko uma ijaji eliqulwe lingasakwazi ukulwa nenzalo, lapho kuvela impi efihliwe yesithakazelo ngaphambili, noma uma isenzakalo esingalindelekile senza kungabi nakwenzeka ukuqhubeka − njengenhlekelele engokwemvelo noma isifo esingathi sína seqembu. Esimweni ngasinye, inkantolo yokuqulwa kwecala kumelwe icabangele ngokucophelela ezinye izindlela (njengokusebenzisa enye ijaji, ukudlulisa ukuqulwa kwecala, noma ukuyala ukuqhubekela phambili (*) ngaphambi kokusho inqubo engafanele. Ukuhluleka ukuhlola izinyathelo ezingathi sína kungaholela ekutholeni ukuthi akukho sidingo esisobala, kanjalo kuphinde kusetshenziswe.

Okuhlukile Ekutholeni Ingozi Kabili Ngemva Kwecala

Ngaphandle kokungahlolwa kahle, ukukhipha okuningi okumiswe kahle kwenza uhulumeni agweme ibhande lezingozi ezimbili ngisho nangemva kokuvunyelwa noma ukulahlwa.

Imfundiso Yababusi Abahlukene

IRefectal Councils Doctrine, eyaziwa futhi njengemfundiso ehlangeneyo yezenzo ezimbili. Imvume yokuba kokubili ohulumeni bombuso nohulumeni bamangalele umuntu oyedwa ngenxa yokuziphatha okufanayo ngenxa yokuthi bazimele ngokwahlukene. Ngokwesibonelo, uma umuntu ekhululiwe enkantolo kahulumeni yokushushumbisa izidakamizwa, uhulumeni wezwe ungaqhubeka emangalela lowo muntu ongaphansi komthetho kahulumeni ngezenzo ezifanayo ezingaphansi kwezwe. Okuhlukile kuqinisekisiwe ngeNkantolo Ephakeme emacaleni afanayo. Griggg v. United States, 139 S. (20.19) C.69), futhi kuhlala kuhleli impikiswano kodwa ngokufana. Izimo ezimbili ezihlukene zingammangalela ummangalelwa ubugebengu ngamunye uma unqamlezi.

Ukukhanga Ngokumangalela

Ngokuvamile, umshushisi akanakudlulisa icala ngoba lokho kungafaka ummangalelwa engozini okwesibili. Nokho, kunezici ezimnciphile. Uhulumeni ungafaka isiphakamiso esithile esiqeda ngokuphumelelayo icala − njengokuncishwa kwemithetho enjenge 18 U.S.C. . . . . . . . . . . uma ukulahlwa kusekelwe ekutheni umsulwa ungenacala eliyiqiniso noma isinqumo esiqondiwe sokulahla, isilinganiso esiphindwe kabili sivimbela noma isiphi isikhalo. Uma imiphumela yokulahlwa kwemithetho esekelwe ephutheni (umk., uma ijajikithazeli lomthetho), ama-gamestlette alinganiselwe kakhulu, nakuba kwezinye izimemezelo zokudlulisa “umholi ohluliwe” ingagunyazwa uma imvume imvume ikhona.

Ukuquliswa Kwezigebengu Nokushushiswa Kwabantu

Ingozi ephindwe kabili isebenza ekwahluleleni, hhayi kweyomphakathi. Uhulumeni ungaletha isinyathelo somphakathi sokulahla impahla esetshenziswa ebugebenguni, ngisho noma umnikazi ekhululiwe ecaleni lobugebengu eliyisisekelo. Nokho, United States v. Ursery, 518 U.S. 267 [1996], iNkantolo Ephakeme yasekela ukuthi ukulahlekelwa kwezakhamuzi ngokuvamile akuyona “isijeziso” ngezinhloso eziphindwe kabili. Lokhu kuvumela izenzo ezihambelanayo zomphakathi nobugebengu ngaphandle kokufaka isigqebhethelo somthetho.

Amakhambi Ngemva Kokukhanga Okuphumelelayo Kwesikhulu Sawo

Uma ummangalelwa eboshelwa futhi edluliswa izikhalo, futhi inkantolo edlulisa icala ibuye iphendule ukuqashelwa nokuqulwa kwecala elisha, ngokuvamile izingozi eziphindwe kabili aziyitholi inkantolo. Isikhalo sommangalelwa ngokwaso sibhekwa njengesiwukuvikeli. Nokho, uma ushintsho lusekelwe ebufakazini obunganele , “‘ ukufakwa kabili nokungakhokhwa nokungalungisi ("umphaza nommangalelwa) ngeke kuphinde kubekwe endaweni ye-inte ([ Bursks v. United States, 437 U.S. 1.7). 07). Umehluko unzima: ubufakazi obusekelwe ekuhlonisweni, kanti ukuguqulwa komthetho akunakona okungakho.

Izimpawu Eziwuphawu Ziwuchitha Umthetho

Izinqumo eziningana zeNkantolo Ephakeme ziye zachaza ukuvela kwezingozi ezimbili ezibangelwa ukungezwani kwemibandela:

  • United States v. Perez [1824]: wamisa “indinganiso esobala” yokungaqiniseki kwempi yommangalelwa.
  • Wade v. Mzingeli (1949): Ukuhlolwa okusobala okubhekiswe ezinkantolo zezempi ku- [“amacatarian] futhi kuhlanganisa isithakazelo somphakathi ekuqedeni izindaba zobugebengu.
  • Arizona v. Washington (1978]): Washo ukuthi ukumemezela komahluleli oququzelelayo icala eliyiphutha elisekelwe empikiswaneni engafanelekile yomshushisi kudinga ukubekeka isibopho kodwa kumelwe kusekelwe “kwizinga eliphezulu lokudingeka.”
  • Orgon v. Kennedy[[FL:1] (1982): Ibeke ibhande ukuze liphinde liqulwe ngemva kokuqulwa kwecala elibi elabangelwa ukuziphatha okubi komshushisi ezimweni lapho umshushisi ayehlose ukucasula amaphutha.
  • Gqudge v. United States (2029): Ukuqinisekisa imfundiso ehlangeneyo, ivumela ukuqulwa kwecala okuzimele ngenxa yokuziphatha okufanayo.

Izicelo Ezingokoqobo Zochwepheshe Bezomthetho

Ukuvikela Izilwane Ezinenjini

Uma ukuqulwa kwecala kubonakala kuhamba kabi, iseluleko sokuvikela singacabangela ukuthatha indawo yecala elingafanele. Nokho, ukwenza kanjalo kufake izingozi ezimbili ngaphandle kokuba ukuziphatha okubi komshushisi bekuvusa inkanuko ngamabomu. Ngakho, iseluleko kumelwe sihlole inzuzo yokubalekela ukukhohliswa okungase kwenzeke cishe kumelane nengozi yokuvinjelwa komzuzwana, okungase kulungiswe kangcono. Uma ukuziphatha komshushisi kuwela emgqeni owenzela ukuhlokoma, ukuzivikela kufanele kushele ekutholeni amaphutha kodwa futhi kugcine nombhalo wokuziphatha okubi ukuze kuphikiselwe ibhamu lokulwa ngaphansi kwe . Kennedy.

Kumacala

Abashushisi kufanele baqaphele kahle ukuthi noma yikuphi ukuziphatha okungabhekwa njengokubangela ukuqulwa kwecala ngenhloso kungase kuhlale njalo kuse-bar yokuziphindisela. Ngisho noma inkantolo idingeka ngokungafanele, umshushisi kufanele agweme ukuqondisa okuhloniphisa ukuvikela ngapha nangapha. Uma kubikwa ukuthi ijaji elilengisiwe, kufanele licele ukuba umahluleli ahlole zonke ezinye izindlela ngaphambi kokusho ukuthi i-strium; ukudumba kwangaphambi kwesikhathi kungatholakala kungadingekile, kuholele ekuxoxisweni ngobandlululo.

AbaHluleli

Amajaji aqulwayo anomthwalo onzima wokuqinisekisa ukuthi amacala anqunywa ngokungafanele kuphela ngemva kokuhlola ngokucophelela zonke ezinye izindlela. Kumelwe asho ngokucacile ukuthi kubaluleke kangakanani emlandweni, achaze ukuthi kungani kunezinyathelo ezimbalwa eziyingozi zokwenza ukululeka abahluleli, ukuthatha isikhundla sejaji, noma ukuqhubeka kwecala kunganele. Ukuhluleka ukwenza kanjalo kungaholela ekuhlinzweni futhi kuqedweni kwamacala unomphela.

I - “goardi ” Engxenyeni Yanamuhla

Inombolo ephindwe kabili yengozi iyaqhubeka iphenduleka ngokusabela ezinkingeni ezintsha zomthetho. Ngokwesibonelo, kuye kwaphakama imibuzo mayelana nokusetshenziswa kwayo ekuvimbeleni ubugebengu obungokweze-inthanethi lapho ukuziphatha kwenzeka khona ezinhlwini zikahulumeni, ukuqulwa ngokulandelana kwemithetho kahulumeni elandelwayo, kanye nokuhambisana nokufuduka kwabantu (okuyindawo kodwa kungaba nemiphumela yomphakathi). Ukuphakama “kwezimo zecala” — umphakathi, ubugebengu, nomthetho olawulayo — kuhlola futhi izinga lesivikelo. Nakuba isimiso sihlala siqinile, imingcele yaso ihlala iqinile.

Isiphetho

Ingozi ephindwe kabili iwusivikelo olubalulekile kuhulumeni ophathwe kabi, kodwa ukushiyeka kokungaqondi kahle kwezembulo kwembula ukulinganisela okucophelelayo phakathi kwamalungelo abantu kanye nesithakazelo somphakathi ekuqulweni okulungile nokuphelele. Ukungaqondi kahle akuphezi ngokuzenzekelayo ikhono likahulumeni lokuqungatha; ukuthi ukuqulwa kabusha kuxhomeke ekutheni ubani owenze ukwahlulela okungalungile, ukuthi kungenxa yesizathu salokho okugunyaziwe, futhi ukuthi kusobala yini. Izehlakalo ezibonisa ukuthi zikhona. [[FLT: 0] uPezez ukuya e [FLT:] ekumangale] kungumthetho [[FLT:] [2] [3] ukwenziwa kwemithetho engokomthetho, kodwa icala ngalinye liguqula amaqiniso awo akhethekile. Ochwepheshe bezomthetho, ukuphatha kahle nokuphatha izingozi kabili yezomthetho. Uma izikhulu zezo zomthetho zingasebenzi ezigelekeqelwe yizo zomthetho futhi zingakho ezisolwayo zomthetho.

Ukuze ufunde ngokwengeziwe, hlola i-Cornell Information i-header yengozi ephindwe kabili, SCOUSprog ukuze uhlaziye izenzakalo eziyinhloko[, kanye nombhalo we-[FLT]] or "Orgon v. Kennedy