INkantolo Ephakeme Njengomgadi Womthetho - sisekelo

INkantolo Ephakeme yase-United States ingummisi wokugcina womthetho-sisekelo ochaza incazelo, isebenzisa amandla okubumba umthetho nenhlangano ngencazelo yayo. Ngokungafani namagatsha emithetho nezikhulu, angaphansi kokhetho oluthandwayo nokucindezela kwezombangazwe, iNkantolo iklanyelwe ukusebenza ngokuzimela, ivimbela ukulandisa kwayo komphakathi okuqondile ukuze ilondoloze ukubusa komthetho. Lokhu kuhlukaniswa kokwakha kuqinisekisa ukuthi uMthetho-sisekelo ‚ ukusungulwa kwezwe kuhlala incwadi ephilayo ezimiso zayo zisebenza ngokungaguquki, ngisho nalapho lezo zicelo zibonakala ziphikisana.

Igunya leNkantolo alitholakali enkembani noma esikhwameni semali, kodwa ekhonweni layo lokucabanga, ukunxenxa, nokuyala inhlonipho ngemibono ehlelwe ngokucophelela. Eminyakeni engaphezu kwemibili, iNkantolo Ephakeme iye yaxazulula izimpikiswano eziye zachaza imingcele yamandla kahulumeni, inkululeko yomuntu ngamunye, futhi yaxazulula izingxabano phakathi kwemibuso. Ukuqonda indlela iNkantolo esebenza ngayo futhi kungani izinqumo zayo zinesisindo esinjalo kubalulekile kunoma ubani ofuna ukuqonda isimiso sikahulumeni waseMelika.

Isisekelo Somlando: ISiphakamiso III NeNkantolo Yokuqala

Abahleli boMthetho-sisekelo baqaphela ukuthi ikomiti yejaji eliqinile yayidingeka ukuze ihlole ukuthi kungenzeka iSishaya - mthetho sibe yisiphi isiphakamiso nesikhulu. ISiphakamiso III soMthetho-sisekelo wase-U.S. samisa iNkantolo Ephakeme eyodwa futhi sanikeza iSishaya-mthetho ukuba kumiswe izinkantolo eziphansi zikahulumeni. IJadicary Act ka-1789, eyasayinwa umthetho nguMongameli uGeorge Washington ngoSeptember 24, 1789, yasungula iNkantolo Ephakeme eyilungu lesithupha yeNkantolo Ephakeme − Ilunga Eliyinhloko neMithelelana eNkathi YeziNxadodanu ehlangene neMibuso yaseMelika (e) futhi yamisa isakhiwo esiyisisekelo senkantolo kahulumeni esisaqhubeka namuhla.

INkantolo yokuqala yabhekana nezinselele ezinkulu. Yayingenalo ikhaya elihlala njalo, lithuthwe phakathi kweNew York, iPhiladelphia, futhi ekugcineni iWashington, D.C., futhi yasebenzisa ithonya elincane uma liqhathaniswa namanye amagatsha. UMahluleli wokuqala, uJohn Jay, wayeka ukuba umbusi waseNew York, ebheka iNkantolo njengenhlangano ebuthakathaka. UMahlulelo uJohn Marshall waqala ukuqinisa igunya layo, waguqula inkantolo encane yaba igatsha likahulumeni elilinganayo. Ukuhola kukaMarshall nomthetho wesandla wesizwe [[FLT:]. [FLD:] [FOLD] [1] [18] [18]) wasungula isimiso sokubukeza komthetho, ukuguqula iNkakhulu leNkakhulu.

Umtapo Wekhorali YeNkantolo Ephakeme

Nakuba ibhodi leNkantolo lihlanganisa amacala amaningi ahlukahlukene, imithwalo yalo eyisisekelo ixhomeke ezigabani eziningana ezisekela umthetho - sisekelo.

Ukuhumusha Umthetho - sisekelo

Umsebenzi obaluleke kakhulu weNkantolo Ephakeme uwukuchaza umbhalo woMthetho-sisekelo futhi uwusebenzise emibuzweni yamanje engokomthetho. Lokhu kuhilela ukuhlaziya incazelo yokuqala yamalungiselelo omthetho, ukucabangela umongo ongokomlando, nokuhlola izenzakalo ezingokomlando. Izindlela zeNkantolo zokuchaza ziyahlukahluka: ezinye izinqubo zinamathela ekuchazeni amagama akuqala (ukufuna ukuqonda umbhalo njengoba wawuyoqondwa ngesikhathi sokusetshenziswa komthetho-sisekelo ovamile), kuyilapho abanye bemukela isimiso somthetho - sisekelo esiphilayo (ukwamukela incazelo yalombhalo ngokushintsha ngoshintsho lwezenhlalakahle). Kungakhathaliseki indlela yokusebenza kweNkantolo, ukuchaza kwayo yonke izinkantolo eziphansi kuba inqubo evumelana nesisekelo.

Ngokwesibonelo, i-Diformation of Columbia v. [2008], iNkantolo yabambelela ekutheni iSichibiyelo Sesibini sivikela ilungelo lomuntu lokuba nento yokuzidubula ekhaya, sigumbuqela amashumi eminyaka esibonelo ayethathe okufanelekela inkonzo yobusosha. Lesi sinqumo saguqula imithetho yezibhamu ezweni lonke futhi siyaqhubeka sithonya ukufakwa kwemithetho yezikhali ezimisweni zezikhali. Ngokufanayo, Citenns United. FEC (20) saphinda sachaza iSimende sokuLungisa Umthetho Wokuqala ukuze sivumele izigebengo zeze futhi imishado ukuba isebenzise imali ezimele ezinciphelweni zezombangazwe, ngokushintsha izimali zezentengongo.

Ukubukeza Kokwahlulela: Ukuhlola Imithetho Nezenzo Eziqondisayo

Ukubukeza kokwahlulela kungamandla eNkantolo Ephakeme okumemezela umthetho noma isenzo sokuphatha ngaphandle kwemithetho futhi ngakho singenalutho. Leligunya, laqale lagomela Marbury v., alihlelwanga ngokuqondile eMthethweni kodwa lisuka emsebenzini weNkantolo ukuba lisho ukuthi umthetho uyini. Uma icala linikezwa ngokufanele ukuma, ukuvuthwa, futhi kungekho mpikiswano yezombangazwe, iNkantolo ingashaya imithetho edluliswa yizinhlangano zombuso, imithetho, imithetho, iziqondiso ezikhishwa yizinhlangano ze-ogalelo, ngisho nezenzo ze-Mongameli.

Enye yezindlela eziphawulekayo zokuhlola kwenzekile entsheni eshayelwayo ethi Presidente Comment Comment shop & Tube Co. v. Sayer (1952), lapho iNkantolo yenza uMongameli Truman angabi namsebenzi wokulawula izinsimbi phakathi neMpi yaseKorea. INkantolo yathi uMongameli wayengenalo ngokomthetho wokuthatha isinyathelo esinjalo ngaphandle kokuvunyelwa kwe-computerism. Muva nje, [FLTLT:2] Imvume yeNkathi Yokhuseleko lwaseModyland v. Regets of the University of California[FLTriact:] [20]), iNkantolo yavimba ukuzama ukuqeda i-CRCMphathiswano (DAC), uhlelo oluwembulwe yi-ACC.

Ukuxazulula Izingxabano Phakathi Kwamazwe

UMthetho-sisekelo unikeza iSigungu seNkantolo ePhakeme ukuphatha kokuqala emacaleni lapho isifundazwe sisengxenyeni khona. Lezimpikiswano zihilela imikhawulo yomngcele, amalungelo amanzi, noma izingqungquthela zamazwe ahlukene. Ngoba akukho mbuso owodwa ongamelana nezinye iziphakamiso, iNkantolo isebenza njenge-forum. Izibonelo zihlanganisa [ Kansas v. Nebraskas [20], (2015], okusombulula impikiswano ehlangene ne-Riphablikian River Literation, futhi ] New Jersey v. Delarew[FLD:3]] [2008]]), ngokuphathelene nomngcele woMfula iDelsare. INkantolo ihlela i-Promentialss" ngokubodwa i-om) ubufakazi bokuhlela, nakuba isinqumo sokugcina.

Ukuvikela Amalungelo Abantu Ngabodwa

Kuwo wonke umlando wayo, iNkantolo Ephakeme ibiyinhlangano egxekayo yokuvikela amalungelo abantu ngokuphambana nohulumeni. IBhili yamaLungelo ekuqaleni yayisebenza kuhulumeni kahulumeni kuphela, kodwa nge i-Inshoctive Doctrict []. [leNkantolo yaqala ngobuqotho ekuqaleni kwekhulu lama-20] i-Curt yanikeza isivikelo esikhulu kakhulu seSithathu, sesihlanu, seSihlanu, seSihlalo Sesishiyaganiso se-Xenzelo, i-195, neziNguqulo ze-Refection Refectiveation Procementation’s Refectiveation Claces Claus. Le-Promention ivule iNkadentions yemithetho ephula imithetho ephula inkululeko yenkulumo, yezindaba, yezemthetho, yezemthetho, yezemthetho, yecala, yezelele, yezemthetho, yezemthetho yobugebengu, neyesigezomthetho.

Imithetho yokukhipha imvume yamalungelo esizwe iye yasingatha ukucwasana ngokohlanga, ukulingana kwabobulili obufanayo, amalungelo okuvota, nobulungisa bobugebengu. Brown v. ibhodi yezemfundo[ (1854]), iNkantolo yamemezela ukuthi izikole zomphakathi azinamthetho. [[FLT]] Ijiyeright[ [1963], iqinisekisa ilungelo lezeluleko lomphakathi lokungamele izigebengi ezingemthetho.

Izenzakalo Eziwuphawu Ezalolonga Isizwe

Ukuzihlola kwembula ukuthi iNkantolo iye yazivelela kanjani nokuthi izinqumo zayo ziyaqhubeka kanjani zithatha isinyathelo.

Marbury v. Madison (103)

Lelicala lavela enkingeni yezombangazwe ngemva kokhetho luka-1800. UMongameli John Adams wamisa inani elithile lamajaji kahulumeni ezinsukwini zokugcina zokuphatha kwakhe, kodwa amanye amanxusa awazange adluliswe ngaphambi kokuba uThomas Jefferson athathe isikhundla. UWilliam Marbury, omunye wabaphathi abamisiwe, unobhala weSishayamthetho weSizwe uJames Madison ukuba aphoqelele ukuthunywa kwakhe. UMahluleli omkhulu John Marshall, ebhala enkantolo ehlangene, wamemezela ukuthi nakuba uMarbury wayenelungelo lokuthunywa, iNkantolo yayingenakunikeza ikhambi ikhambi ngenxa yokuthi umthetho unikeza igunya (impathi ye-Rhudiary Actry yangowewaka ka-1789) ukuthi iwumthetho umthetho uyavuma ukuthi iwumthetho, futhi awuwunakele. [Fomerson u-Fodner]).[10]

Brown v. Board of Education (1954)

Inqunywe ngaphansi kweJaji eliyinhloko i-Earl Warren, v. Ibhodi yemfundo yahlehlisa “imfundiso ehlukene kodwa elinganayo” esungulwe ku Pnety v. Ferguson[ [1896]. INkantolo yanquma ukuthi ukuhlukanisa izinhlanga ezikoleni zomphakathi kwaphula iSivikeli sika Clausleanste seSinyuse se-145. Umbono odumile waphawula ukuthi“ izakhiwo zemfundo ezihlukene azilingani.” Nakuba ukumiswa kwemisebenzi yabhekana nokuphikisa okukhulu, [[FLT][FLT][FLD:5] Brow [FLD] [FLD]] yaba yindawo engokomthetho yenkululeko yezemisebenzi yomphakathi nemizamo elandelanayo kuzo zonke izici zokuphila komphakathi.

URade (1973)

.Rade v., iNkantolo yaqaphela ilungelo lomthetho-sisekelo lokwethula okuhlanganisa isinqumo sowesifazane sokukhipha isisu. Ibhalela iningi, uMahluleli Harry Blackmun wakholelwa ukuthi i-Guement Claus yeSichibiyelo se-Grande-145th Ivikela ilungelo lowesifazane lokuqeda ukukhulelwa, lingaphansi kokumisa umthetho osekelwe ekwakheni uhlakanisweni oluqinile. Isinqumo sabangela impikiswano enkulu yezombangazwe nezenhlalo eyaqhubeka namuhla. KM] Knumss. iJack’s St.[FLT] Inhlangano yezempilo yezeMpilo yezentengiselwano ivikela ilungelo lokuvimbela [FLT:][FFF]2]2] [5]

Obergefell v. Hodges (2015)

[[NTL:0] ku-[FLT] u-Obergefell v. Hodges, iNkantolo yathi iSichibiyelo seshumi nane sidinga zonke izifundazwe ukuba zivumele imishado phakathi kwemibhangqwana ehlangeneyo futhi ziqaphele imishado eyenziwa kwezinye izizwe. Umbono weningi ka-Anthony Kennedy wagcizelela ukuthi ilungelo lokushada liyinkululeko eyisisekelo engokwemvelo emqondweni wokuzibusa komuntu ngamunye. Isinqumo esincishiswe imingcele efanayo yomshado ezifundelwayo futhi simele isiphetho samashumi eminyaka eLGBTQ+ amaqembu esizwe. [[FLT:] [FLT] [FLT] [FL:] [FLT] [5], [5] [FFFFFFF]

Ithonya Elandile LeNkantolo Ephakeme Emphakathini

Izinqumo zeNkantolo Ephakeme azinandaba; zisebenzelana nezombangazwe, umbono womphakathi, nesimiso somphakathi ngezindlela eziyinkimbinkimbi.

Ukugunyaza Imithetho

Uma iNkantolo Ephakeme ikhipha umthetho, ngokuvamile ibangela ukusabela kwemithetho. UMkhandlu ungawubhala futhi umthetho wokulungisa ukukhubazeka komthetho-sisekelo, ukudlulisa umthetho-sisekelo (rare), noma umane nje wamukele ukubusa. Ngokwesibonelo, ngemva United States v. Morrison] [2000] [2000]) udebesele ingxenye yobudlova obumelene nomthetho-Afford Act, uMkhandlu awuzange uzame ukubuyisela ilungiselelo ngaphansi kwenkolelo ehlukile yomthetho-mthetho-mthetho. Ngokuphambene, u-FLT] u-FLT [ix] u-Endrective of Independent [FFFlct:3] (202]) wasekela i-Afford Carence Act njengomthetho womthetho womthetho womthetho, kodwa iNkakhulu leNkathi yeNkathi yeNkathi ye-Miclethiyenzi engayiholidiyonyukeli eholidiyolidiwe ukuba iholidiwe iholi

Ukuphazamisa Umthetho Womphakathi Ngokuphambana

Isinqumo ngasinye seNkantolo Ephakeme simisa isibonelo okufanele silandelwe izinkantolo eziphansi ezicathulweni ezifanayo. Lokhu kudala impumelelo enkulu phakathi kwesimiso somthetho. Isinqumo esiphathelene nesihloko esisodwa. [1] njengokukhishwa kwemithetho Map v. Ohio [1961] noma imanda [[] [[FLT]]] izimfuneko eziwuyisixwayiso [[[FLT]] [[FLT]] [[FLD]] [irty:3] [irpassss sholor [[[iiiiirtiod projectalsssss provicesss] [irtial shortum), i-omatication yegatsha: i-eviciatemptial yemithetho ethile ethile, noma imiyawulicial yemithetho ethile elawula ezinye. [[Foglethist]

Ukwethenjwa Umphakathi Nomthetho WeNkantolo

Igunya leNkantolo ePhakeme ekugcineni lisekelwe ekuvumeni komphakathi indima yayo. Uma iNkantolo ikhipha izinqumo ezingathandeki, ifaka izingozi zezezombangazwe noma zokungavumelani. Abameli nabameli baye bazama ukulolonga isiqondiso seNkantolo ngenqubo yokumisa, futhi ifuna inguquko yokwakha ngokulingana nemingcele yezikhathi ezithile, ibhentshi ebanzi, noma umthetho obophayo wezimiso zokuziphatha. Noma kunjalo, iNkantolo iye yalondoloza inqolobane yethemba lenhlangano, iqiniswa ukunamathela kwayo ekuqondiseni okungokomthetho, isiko, nokubonakala kokungakhethi. Ukuphila kobulungisa okuyishumi kubavikela ekucindezeleni okukhethiwe, kodwa futhi kwenza iNkantolo yezono yezomthetho iqhubeke impikiswano yefilosofi nezombangazwe.

Izinselele Zangesikhathi Esidlule Nokuqhubeka Uzibheka Njengezinga

Namuhla, iNkantolo ePhakeme ibhekene nezimpikiswano ezigcwele izimpikiswano: ukukhipha isisu, amalungelo ezibhamu, ukuvumela isenzo esingokwenkolo, inkululeko esendaweni ezungezile, kanye namandla ezinhlangano zikahulumeni. INkantolo yamanje, enabantu abangu-6-32 abathatha indinganiso, iye yabonisa ukuzimisela ukuguqula inqubo futhi yamukela ukucabanga kokuqala ezicabeni ezifana [[FLT: 1]] amaDobbs [[FLT:] nesinqumo samuva seNkantolo [[FL:] New York State Rifle & Pistol Association v. Brut[2] Brut][2][202] [inani]]) umbiko wezikhulu zezikhulu zeze-Provis.[202]

Phakathi nalezimpikiswano, iNkantolo ihlala iyinkundla yokugcina yokuxazulula imibuzo ejulile yomthetho-sisekelo. Indima yayo njengomphathi woMthetho-sisekelo ifuna ukuba ibe yizimiso nezivumelanayo, ilinganise ukwethembeka emklamweni wabasunguli nokusabela nezimiso zezenhlalo. Nakuba iNkantolo ingeke ikhululeke ekugxekeni, ikhono layo lokusebenza njengomlweli womthetho wentando yeningi othembekile liyonquma impilo yentando yeningi yaseMelika.

Isiphetho

INkantolo Ephakeme yase-United States ayiyona nje inkantolo yokugcina efuna usizo; iyisici esiphilayo sesithembiso soMthetho-sisekelo sobulungisa ngaphansi komthetho. Kusukela ekuqaleni kwayo okuphansi ngo-1789 kuya esimweni sayo samanje njengendikimba yokwahlulela enamandla kakhulu emhlabeni, iNkantolo iye yaguqula ukuphila kwaseMelika ngezindlela eziningi. Ukuchazwa kwayo ngoMthetho-sisekelo (‘ukulondolozwa kombuso wezwe, ukwandisa amalungelo omphakathi, noma ukuhlola isikhulu esiphansi esinenkampane [“isikhonzi esiphansi,") ichaza indawo engokomthetho nengokwezombangazwe. Njengomgadi womthetho-mthetho-mthetho wezwe, iNkandlu Ephakeme iqinisekisa ukuthi akukho gatsha likahulumeni elidlula imingcele yayo futhi amalungelo omuntu asele evikelekile. Ukuqonda umlando weNkakhulu, imisebenzi, nethonya elingekhona imfundo; ibalulekile kunoma izakhamuzi ezifuna ukubusa ngemibuso yaseMelika.