Isisekelo Sasendulo Senqubo Efanele

Imithetho ebhaliwe yakudala yembula ukuthi ngisho nasendulo, imiphakathi yaqaphela isidingo sezinqubo ezihlelwe kahle nezinqunyiwe lapho isebenzisa ubulungisa. Inqubo efanele yabonakala ingasungulwanga ngokugcwele; kunalokho, yavela kancane kancane njengoba impucuko yayisuka ekubuseni okuzimele okusekelwe ekubuseni.

Umthetho KaHammurabi (u - circa 1754 BCE)

Ikhodi likaHammurabi, enye yemibhalo emidala kakhulu eqondwayo enobude obubalulekile, yamisa isimiso semithetho ebhaliwe eyayisebenza kuzo zonke izakhamuzi ezikhululekile zaseBabiloni. Nakuba izijeziso zazivame ukuba nokhahlo futhi zisekelwe ezigabeni, uhlelo olusungulweyo lwalunezici eziningana ezingokwezigaba: abamangaleli kwadingeka balethe amacala akhethekile, ubufakazi bucatshangelwe, futhi abahluleli babelindeleke ukuba basebenzise umthetho ngokungaguquguquki. Amazwi adumile athi “iso eliyiso” empeleni ayemelela uhlobo lokuqala lokulingana, isijeziso esilinganisela ekubekeni isijeziso sobubi kunokuba bavumele isijeziso esiwumthetho. Lomqondo [[FLT:]] u-protiotiationity, futhi ubhaliwe ngokwezindinganiso ezingokomthetho.

UMthetho WaseRoma Namatafula Eshumi Nambili (i - circa 450 BCE)

IRome Republic yakhipha iThe Twelve Tables, uhlelo oluqinisekisa wonke umuntu wesakhamuzi ilungelo lokwazi imithetho abahlulelwe ngayo. AmaRoma futhi asungula umqondo wokumelelwa ngokomthetho: ummangalelwa wayengakhuluma evikela noma aqashelwe ummeleli. Isimiso se uPanamastem [“] [“ukuzwa olunye uhlangothi]) [lufakwe ku Roma], siqinisekisa ukuthi akukho sahlulelo esinganikezwa ngaphandle kokuzwa kokubili amaqembu. Kamuva uJustian Code codecle cod isijezisowe ngaphandle kokuqulwa komthetho olungileyo, isimiso esithonywe ngokuqondile yizinhlelo zomthetho zaseYurophu zenkathi ephakathi. Le mithetho yamaRoma iyiminikelo ye-[FLD [F:]

Intuthuko Yangenkathi Ephakathi: UMagna Carta NoMthetho Ovamile

Inkathi ephakathi yabona inqubo efanele iphenduka isuka emaphusheni efilosofi yaba amalungelo angokomthetho aqikelelwayo, ikakhulukazi eNgilandi.Izenzakalo ezimbili eziyinhloko − uMagna Carta nokukhula komthetho ovamile — kwaguqula indlela ubulungisa obusetshenziswa ngayo.

IMagna Carta (1215)

Mhlawumbe incwadi ewuphawu lwesithombe enkulu emlandweni wenqubo efanele, iMagna Carta yaphoqelelwa kuNkosi uJoe ngamabharonsi ahlubukayo. Isahluko 39 somthetho-mthetho wokuqala sathi: “Akekho umuntu okhululekile ozobanjwa, agqunywe ejele, asuswe, adingiwe, noma onakaliswe nganoma iyiphi indlela, futhi ngeke simelane noma siqondise ukuqulwa kwakhe, ngaphandle kokwahlulela okungokomthetho kontanga yakhe noma umthetho wezwe. Lenkulumo, “ngomthetho wezwe,” ingukhokhokhokhokho wegama lanamuhla“ lokuthatha isinyathelo sokuya umthetho. ” Nakuba iMagna Carta ekuqaleni isebenza kuphela kubantu abakhululekile (ngesikhathi), isungulwe yikhophi ye-FUPM [F: 0].[1]

UMthetho Ovamile Nokuqulwa Kwamacala NgoJury (Ikhulu Le - 13)

Ngokulandela uMagna Carta, abahluleli baseNgilandi baqala ukusungula umthetho ovamile − indikimba yemithetho esekelwe evikela amalungelo abantu ngabanye. Ngekhulu le-13, isimiso sokuhlulela saqala ukuvela eqenjini lofakazi bendawo elingakhethi indikimba enqumayo yeqiniso. Ilungelo lokuqulwa kwecala laba yisivikelo esiyisisekelo ekucinezelweni kukahulumeni. Abalobi bezomthetho benkathi ephakathi njengoHenry de Bracton baphikisa ngokuthi igunya lenkosi lalilinganiselwe ngesiko nangomthetho, ngokuqhubekayo lifaka inqubo efanele. Ngokuhamba kwesikhathi, umthetho ovamile waveza amalungelo akhethekile akhethekile okukhomba: ilungelo lokuqaphela izikhalo zikahulumeni, ilungelo lokubhekana nofakazi abangokomthetho abakhona.

Ifilosofi Yokukhanyiselwa Nezinguquko Ezingokomthetho

Ngekhulu le - 17 nele - 18 kwashintsha inqubo efanele yabahlakaniphi bokuKhanyiselwa ababephikisa ngokuthi abantu babenamalungelo angokwemvelo ohulumeni ababengenakuwephula ngaphandle kwezinqubo ezifanelekile.

UJohn Locke Namalungelo Emvelo (Ikhulu Le - 17)

John Locke’s ITreases ezimbili zikaHulumeni [1689] zaphikisa ngokuthi bonke abantu bazalwa benamalungelo angokwemvelo ekuphileni, inkululeko, nempahla. Ohulumeni bathola ilungelo ngokuvumelana nemvume yabalawulwayo futhi kumelwe benze ngokuvumelana nemithetho emisiwe, hhayi imithetho ewumthetho. Isivumelwano somphakathi somphakathi sasithi uma uhulumeni ephula lamalungelo, silahlekelwa igunya lawo. Imibono yakhe yaba isisekelo sezezezezezenzweni ezifanele zenqubo yefilosofi ezindaweni eziseMelika. Locke wagcizelela ukuthi “noma kuphi umthetho uphelaphi, ubushiqela buqala,” ububanzi obungasekela inkolelo yezentengo engokomthetho kamuva.

I - English Bill of Rights (1689)

Ngemva kweNguquko eMhlaziyi, iPhalamende lamisa iSiphakamiso samaLungelo, esahlanganisa izinhlelo eziningana ezifanelekile: ibheyili ephakeme nesijeziso esinonya nesingavamile kwakwenqatshelwe; abahluleli kwakumelwe bafakwe futhi babuyiselwe ngokufanelekile; futhi kwadingeka imvume yePhalamende ukuze kumiswe imithetho. Lencwadi yahlanganisa uMagna Carta nomthetho ovamile, yakha uhlelo lwamalungelo angokomthetho ayengase ancengelwe uHulumeni. Yaqinisekisa futhi ilungelo lokunxusa inkosi nelungelo lokuphatha izikhali zomuntu siqu, kokubili okuhlobene nenqubo efanelekile.

Inguquko YaseMelika Neziqinisekiso Zomthetho - sisekelo

Abenzi bamakoloni baseMelika, ababengene shí emasikweni angokomthetho nasemqondweni wesiNgisi wokuKhanyiselwa, benza inqubo efanele yaba imfuneko eyinhloko ekulweleni kwabo ukukhululeka.

UMthetho - sisekelo waseU.S. (1787)

UMthetho-sisekelo wokuqala wawunezindlela ezimbalwa ezicacile zokuvikela ezifanele, kodwa isimo sawo sasibonisa izimiso ezifanele: Igatsha lemithetho lalingenakukwazi ukudlulisa izikweleti ze-ander (izinqumo ngaphandle kokuqulwa) noma imithetho yangemva kwecala; amandla okwahlulela anwetshwa kuphela emacaleni nasezimpikiswaneni; futhi ilungelo le-habeas corpus lalingenakuyekwa ngaphandle kokuhlubuka noma ukuhlasela. Lemigoqo yokwakha yayihloselwe ukuvimbela isinyathelo sikahulumeni esinesizathu.

ISichibiyelo Sesihlanu (1791)

ISichibiyelo sesihlanu soMthetho-sisekelo wase-U.S. sisho ngokucacile: “Akekho umuntu oyothiwa ukuphila, inkululeko, noma impahla, ngaphandle kwenqubo efanelekile yomthetho.” Lo mbhalo, kanye nezivikelo zokuzivikela kuhulumeni ophethe ngokungemthetho kanye nezingozi eziphindwe kabili, owamisa indinganiso yesizwe ye-procedicalturature. Inkulumo ethi “inqubo yokuqala yomthetho” ibolekwe ngokuqondile emithethweni yamaNgilandi echaza uMagna Carta. ISiphendulo sesihlanu sisebenza kuhulumeni wamazwe, futhi iminyaka ecishe engu-80, kwakuyinqubo efanelekile engokomthetho engokomthetho. Icala eliyinhloko lokuqala, njengaleyo elivamile [[FLT:] [i-Murray] [i-Speeveev. Hockenbo & procence] [FF1] [56], kwaqala ukuchaza ukuhlanganisa kwayo, ukuhlanganisa, ukuhlanganisa, ukuhlanganisa kwayo indlela engokomthetho.

ISichibiyelo Seshumi Nane (1868)

Ngemva kweMpi Yombango, iSichibiyelo seshumi nane seSiphendulo sezenzweni ezifanele zohulumeni. ISinyathelo Sayo inqabela noma isiphi isigaba ukuba sinciphe “noma yimuphi umuntu wokuphila, inkululeko, noma impahla, ngaphandle kwenqubo efanelekile yomthetho.” Lokhu kulungisa kwaba yithuluzi elinamandla lamalungelo omphakathi, okwenza ukuba iNkantolo Ephakeme ishaye imithetho engokomthetho ewukwephula umthetho oyisisekelo. Ekuqaleni, iNkantolo yasebenzisa inqubo efanele ezicaleni zezezomnotho (obizwa ngokuthi “inkathi yezentengiselwa iNkathi”), kodwa phakathi nekhulu le-20 leminyaka, yaba yimoto yokukhipha isivikelo esiningi semithetho evikela amalungelo esizwe ezindaweni. Le mfundiso ye- ifake inqubo engokomthetho yezentengiselwano yezentengiselwano (i-Expt progreption, i-Exter, i-Exten, futhi i-9ndrongmotionssss.

Ukwanda Kwekhulu Le - 19 Nelama - 20

Phakathi nekhulu le-19 nelama-20, inqubo efanele yasuka emqondweni osekelwe ekutheni ihlelwe kanjani yaba imfundiso ebanzi futhi eyayihlanganisa amalungelo angaphansi. Izinkantolo nezishaya-mthetho zandisa incazelo ye- “inkululeko” kanye ne-“elungile” futhi kwadingeka izinqubo ezilungile ezimweni ezintsha.

Inqubo elindelekile iyakhula (ikhulu le-19/20 preadter)

Njengoba izinhlangano zikahulumeni zazikhula, inqubo efanele yavela emongweni wokuphatha. Londoner v. City of Denver (1908), iNkantolo Ephakeme yasekela ukuthi abanikazi bempahla babenelungelo lokuqaphela nokulalela ngaphambi kokuba kuhlolwe intela. Kamuva, Goldberg v. Kelly[ [1970]) yanquma ukuthi abamukeli bezenhlalakahle babengenakuyeka izinzuzo zabo ngaphandle kokuzwa okusobala, ukunwetshwa kwenqubo efanelekile yokukhokha intela. Namuhla, inqubo yokukhokha idinga isaziso, ithuba lokuzwiwa, ithuba lokuzwa, umenzi wesinqumo esingena hlangothi, nomenzi wesinqumo, futhi nokucabangela noma isiphi isinqumo senkululeko kahulumeni, noma isiphi isenzo somphakathi, noma isicishiciselwa sempahla.

Inqubo Eyinhloko Ezolandela (ikhulu Lama - 20)

INkantolo Ephakeme yasungula futhi imfundiso yenqubo eyisisekelo, ephethe ukuthi amalungelo athile ayisisekelo abaluleke kakhulu kangangokuba akukho hulumeni `federal' noma umbuso `ungawaphazamisa, kungakhathaliseki izinqubo ezisetshenziswayo. Griswold v. Connecticut[[ [1965], iNkantolo yaqaphela ilungelo lobumfihlo; [[FLT:]] [FLT]] [2] Reoev. Wadev [ [73]] [7] [indlela] ebanzi yenze ibone ukuthi lokhu kudlulele elungelweni lowesifazane lokukhipha isisumo; [[FLT:] futhi [5] izinqulurn].[4][9]

IWarren Court and Criminal Procedure (1950s -1960)

Ijaji eliyinhloko i-Earl Warren’s Court laguqula inqubo efanelekile yobugebengu. [[FLT:] Mapp v.Ohio (1961) wasebenzisa umthetho wokuzihlukanisa ezizweni, wargata obungekho emthethweni. Gideon v. Waingrid [[FLT:] [1963]] [1963]) waqinisekisa ilungelo lokunikeza iziphakamiso ze-informantsss ezications ezicaleni. [[FLT]] [FLT:]] [FLT]]

Izincazelo Zanamuhla Nemibono Yembulunga Yonke

Ekhulwini lama - 21, inqubo efanele iyaqhubeka iguquka njengoba izinkantolo zilwisana nobuchwepheshe bobuchwepheshe bezobuchwepheshe, ukulondeka kwesizwe, nezindinganiso zamalungelo abantu emhlabeni wonke.

Inqubo Yobuchwepheshe, Yokuzifihla Neyokuhamba Kwakho

Isayensi entsha yezobuchwepheshe ibekela izinselele ezingokwesiko zenqubo ezingokwesiko. I-Raley v. California (2014, iNkantolo Ephakeme yakholelwa ukuthi amaphoyisa ngokuvamile adinga imvume yokuhlola imininingwane yezimiso zobuchwepheshe kumakhalekhukhwini, iqaphela ukuthi imishini yanamuhla inenani elikhulu lokwaziswa komuntu siqu. Karpitary v. United States [2018]]) yandisa leyo mibono kumarekhodi engokomlando esendaweni, idinga isiqinisekiso sokungena. Lezi zenzakalo zibonisa ukuthi inqubo efanelekile kumelwe ikwazi ukuvikela imfihlo kunyaka yolwazi. [[FLT:][FLT][F]

Amalungelo Abantu Ezizwe Zonke Nenqubo Efanele

I-International Parvey on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR), eyamukelwa ngo-1966 futhi yaphumelela kusukela ngo-1976, iqinisekisa ngokucacile ilungelo lokuqulwa kwecala elilungile nenqubo efanelekile eSiphakameni 14. Kudinga ukuba wonke umuntu avunyelwe ukuquliswa ngokusemthethweni, ngokuzimele, nangokungakhethi; ukuthi abamangalelwa becala babhekwe njengabangenacala; nokuthi banelungelo lokuthola usizo olungokomthetho, ukuhlola ofakazi, nokudlulisa izinkolelo. Amazwe amaningi aye afaka lezindinganiso ekwakheni komthetho wasekhaya, akha inqubo esemhlabeni wonke engokomthetho efanelekile. Nokho, ukuphoqelelwa kuhlala kungalingani, nezinhlangano zamalungelo abantu ziqhubeka zingenamthetho. [[FLT:] i-Octrity yeZizwe Eziphezulu yenkululeko Yobuntu [FFF] [FLD]

Izinselele Nezimpikiswano Zesikhathi Esizayo

Inqubo elindelekile ibhekana nezingcindezi ezintsha emongweni wezentengiselwano zesizwe, zokufuduka, nezezomthetho. I-USA PATRIOTT Act nezinhlelo zokuhlola ezilandelayo ziye zaphakamisa ukukhathazeka ngobufakazi obuyimfihlo nokusetshenziswa kwezinkantolo zempi. Izeluleko zokunqanda ukunqanda ngokuvamile azinazo iziphetho eziningi ezinikezwayo ezinkantolo zobugebengu, okuholela ezimpini zokuphikisana ngobukhulu “besikhathi” ngenqubo yokungahambi. INkantolo Ephakeme yecala i- Hamadi v. Rumsteld [204]) ikholelwa ukuthi ngisho nempi yempi yesitha evalelwe eUnited States yayinelungelo lokuqaphela nenelisa isinqumo sayo sokuboshwa ngisho nasendleleni efanelekile.

Isiphetho

Umngcele wesikhathi senqubo efanelekile wembula inqubo engaguquki: umzabalazo wokuqinisekisa ukuthi umbuso kahulumeni usetshenziswa ngokungakhethi, ngokubikezelwa, nangokuhlonipha isithunzi somuntu. Kusukela ezibhebheni zobumba zaseBabiloni kuya kuma-makhalekhukhwini anamuhla, umqondo oyinhloko ulokhu ufana, "akekho umuntu okufanele aphucwe ukuphila, inkululeko, noma impahla engenathuba elinenjongo lokuzwakala nesinqumo esisekelwe emthethweni, hhayi ngokuthatheka. Njengoba ubuchwepheshe bushesha kakhulu futhi imiphakathi iyaqhubeka ihlanganiswa, izimiso zenqubo efanele ziyo ziyoqhubeka zivivinywa futhi zicwengisiswa. Inselele esizukulwaneni ngasinye kumelwe sihloniphe isikhathi esidlule lapho sisamukela lezi sivikelo esidingekayo emaqiwini amasha okubusa nobulungisa.