Lokho Ubuhlanga Obuyikho Nesizathu Sokuba Kubaluleke

UFederalism uyingxenye yomthetho-sisekelo yokuhlukaniswa kwamandla phakathi kukahulumeni ophakathi (wesizwe) nohulumeni besifunda. E-United States, lesi sakhiwo asisona nje isisekelo sokuphatha kuphela, kodwa siwuhlelo lwamabomu oluklanyelwe ukuvimbela ukufakwa kwamandla kuyilapho kuvumela amazwe ukuba asebenze njengezindawo zokuhlola idemokrasi. Ukuqonda uhulumeni wezwe kubalulekile ekuqondeni indlela ukubusa kweMelika kusebenza ngayo kuzo zonke izinga, kusukela ekilasini kuya eSifundeni sesifundazwe, nendlela izakhamuzi ezisebenzelana ngayo nohulumeni wazo nsuku zonke. Ukulinganisela phakathi kwegunya likahulumeni nombuso wezwe kuhlela yonke into enqunyweni yezempilo yomphakathi ukuba ihlulele ukwahlulela ngokulunga, kuyenze ibe yinye yezimiso ezinamandla kakhulu nempikiswano engokomthetho nasezombangazwe eU.S.

Izimbangela Zomlando ZobuFederalism BaseU.S.

Abakhi boMthetho-sisekelo wase-U.S. babhekana nenkinga eyisisekelo: indlela yokwakha inyunyana enamandla ngokwaneleyo asebenza ngokuphumelelayo lapho ilondoloza inkululeko nokuzibusa kwemibuso ngayinye. Ibhukwana elandulele, Artticles of Confederation[, yadala uhulumeni obuthakathaka ongenawo amandla okukhokha intela, ukulawula ibhizinisi, noma imithetho ephoqelelwe. Lokhu kwaholela ezingxabanweni zezomnotho, izingxabano zezifundazwe, nokuhluleka ukusabela ezinkingeni ezinjengokuvukela kukaShays's'. Umthetho-mthetho-sisekelo, owabunjwa ngo-1787, wathatha indawo yalesivumelwano esixekelelekile ngesimiso sikahulumeni esiqondile esabekiwe, esilinganiselwe kuhulumeni wesizwe ngesikhathi sihlela yonke imithetho yezwe nakumazwe.

Izimpikiswano zokwakha phakathi abaxhasi bomthetho-mthetho (abasekela umthetho-sisekelo]) kanye abathakathi be-Antiti-Federali (owabesaba ubushiqela) waguqula idokhumende yokugcina. [[Foctal Paperse] uNost. [[FFLT:5] [[FLT]] no-FLT] Fideralist No.[5] [5] [[FLT] [5:] [5:]] [FLTG]] [5:] [5] [iright nobukhosi obuhlukene, noma ingekho kwemithetho ehlukene, noma ibhulo eligunyazwe yimibuso ehlukene, noma enziwa yi-Adrusayoku.[5] Imibuso ehlukene, noma i - ngokomthetho enziwalela imibuso esemthethweni esemthethweni esemthethweni esemthethweni: [enyunyukenye, noma esemthethweni, esemthethweni, noma enzi

Amalungiselelo Ayinhloko Omthetho - sisekelo Achaza Uhulumeni

Ethonywe, Esetshenziswa, Futhi Engasawatholi Amandla Agciniwe

Umthetho-sisekelo umisa isakhiwo samandla esineziqu ezintathu. Amandla adweliswe ngokunembile yilawo adweliswe eSigabeni I, Ingxenye 8, kuhlanganise namandla okukhokha imali, ukumemezela impi, ukulawula intengiselwano yesifunda, nokumisa amahhovisi eposi. anamandla asebenzayo [kusukela ku-Indibility ne stative Clausle (Ingxenye ye-I, i-Classicle 8, u-Claus 18), enikeza i-Bhungane lomthetho wokwenza yonke imithetho ‘ ifanele ukuhlukanisa nokukhipha amandla ayo. [[FLT]] isisekelo semithetho engokomthetho ebanzi, kusukela ekudalweni kwe-bacralban ezinhlangano zesimanje.

Imibuso egciniwe ingeyombuso kuphela. Lezi zihlanganisa igunya lokuqhuba ukhetho, ukulawula ezohwebo zezwe, ukumisa ohulumeni bendawo, nokuphatha impilo nokhuseleko lomphakathi. Isichibiyeli se-Tenteth[ siyindawo egciniwe engokomthetho yalamandla agciniwe, iqinisekisa ukuthi uhulumeni wezwe ngeke uthathe imisebenzi yombuso ngaphandle komthetho ocacile.

Amandla Amanje No - Claus Oweqisayo

Amanye amagunya ahlanganyelwa yibo bobabili ohulumeni bezwe nohulumeni. la mandla akhona ahlanganisa ikhono lokukhokha intela, ukuboleka imali, ukumisa izinkantolo, nokuphoqelela imithetho. Uma imithetho yesizwe ne-ohulumeni iphikisana. Lokhu kusho ukuthi izinkantolo ziboshwe ngumthetho kahulumeni ngisho noma imithetho ephikisayo. Inkantolo ephakeme (i-Arcle VI, Clausle 2, 2) i-Clausclov. Mary:[5] [izimiso zomthetho kahulumeni, nezivumelwano zingumthetho wezwe]. Lokhu kusho ukuthi izinkantolo ze-game ziboshwe yimithetho kahulumeni ngisho noma ihlelwe ukuba kumiswe imithetho. Inkantolo ephakeme yecala [FLT]MLC.C.[5]][FFF]]

Ukholo Olugcwele Nokudumisana Nobuhlobo Bendawonye

I-Athigin IV yoMthetho-sisekelo ihlanganisa amalungiselelo ahlanganisa izigaba njengesizwe esisodwa. Ukholo olugcwele no Claus ifuna izimemezelo zokuhlonipha izenzo zomphakathi, amarekhodi, kanye nezenzo zokwahlulela zezinye izifunda. [[FLT:] Priviges no-Immunites Claus bavimbela izigaba ekulahleni izakhamuzi zezinye izifundazwe emalungelweni ayisisekelo. u-Claus [[FLT]] u-Extradictedrecteded [F:5] ugunyaza ukuba ababulali abavela ebulungisa babuyiselwe esimweni lapho ubugebengu benze khona. Lokhu kwenza izigebelo lomthetho wesizwe ngesikhathi sokugcinwa kwemithetho.

Ukuvela Kwe - Federalism: Ukusuka Ekuxhumaneni Kuya Ekubambisanani

Dual Federalism (1789-1930)

Ngomlando omkhulu waseMelika, uhulumeni wawusebenza ngaphansi kwesibonelo se- “leayibhuleki”. Uhulumeni wamazwe wasingatha izindaba zesizwe ze-(war, izindaba zakwamanye amazwe), ezentengiselwano zamazwe angaphandle(ngokwakhona imibuso yalawula ukukhathazeka kwendawo njengemfundo, imithetho yomshado, namalungelo empahla. Lenkathi, eyaziwa ngokuthi uhulumeni , yayiphawulwa ngemigqa ecacile yegunya. INkantolo Ephakeme yayivame ukuvikela ubukhosi bombuso, ishaya imithetho kahulumeni edlula imibuso. Ngokwesibonelo, United States v. E. C. [FLT] [FLD] [595], iNkakhulu leNkathi yeNkathi yezomthetho eyayingakhiqiniwe yezentengo yezentengo yezentengo yeze yombuso, isithiyo yegunya lezwezwe.

Ubumbano (1930s1670)

I-Great Depression and Prince Franklin D. Roosevelt’s New Deal yasusa izinhlelo zokulinganisela. Uhulumeni waqala ukunikeza izimali zemali ezizweni zezenhlalakahle, ezezenhlalakahle, ezezisekelo, nezomsebenzi, ukwenza “ikhekhesi” lapho imithwalo yemfanelo yaxutshwa khona futhi yahlanganwa. Inkathi yabona ukushintshwa kweNkantolo ePhakathi Yombuso NLB v. Jones & Laughlin Stel Corp. [197]) yavumela umthetho omkhulu wezentekonti yomphakathi wemisebenzi yezenteko ngaphansi kwe-Celacestee. Lenkathi yabona ukwanda kwamandla kahulumeni ngezinhlelo ezifana ne-Social Security, Mdic, kanye nokuxhaswa kwemigwano ye-migwayidlanga ye-migwane ye-migwane ye-modul. Ezwekazi yabe i-izwe lihlangene, i-ishobo ezihlangene kakhulu. [[[FLT: 1] [197:3]

I - New Federalism (1970säPresenter)

Ekusabeleni ekukhuleni kwamandla kahulumeni, uMongameli Richard Nixon noRonald Reagan basekela [[FLT: 0] i-New Federalism , behlose ukubuyisela igunya nomthwalo wemfanelo ezizweni. Lokhu kwahlanganisa ukuhlanganyela kwemali, ukuphakela, nokukhipha iziphakamiso. INkantolo Ephakeme ngaphansi kweSikhulu uWilliam Rehnquist esenzeka, futhi yanciphisa amandla ezweni ezimweni eziningi, njengaye [[FLT:] United States v. Lopez [195] [195], eyahlasela izikhulu zeSikole seSikole seSikole senkululeko soMnyango seGun, ithatha umthetho owedlula kakhulu njengegunya likaKhosi Congress, kanye ne-Treast . [FLD] v [FLD] [1997], isithise i-odvicerti ye-Emperence, i-Ensence, i-Entellians, i-Ente, i-Entene, i-

Uhlelo Lwezinqubo Zokulwela: Izindawo ezintathu zokuqamba

Ukunakekelwa kwempilo

Umthetho ka-2010 uveza ukusetshenziswa kwamandla kahulumeni nombuso kwanamuhla. Umthetho wandisa iMedicaid, kodwa kamuva isinqumo seNkantolo Ephakeme i-National Federation of Independent Business v. Sebelius [20202] wenziwa isifundazwe sihlanganyele ngokuzithandela. Ngenxa yalokho, ezinye izifunda zandisa uMdicaid kuyilapho ezinye zingazange zibangele ukungaboni ngasonye okukhulu ekuchazeni nemiphumele. I-ASA yasungula futhi intengo yempilo ye-mshuwalense yezentengiso, kodwa amazwe amaningi akhetha ukusebenzisa ukuguqula kokubili ukuguquguquka nokulingana kwezwe eMedicad.

Imfundo

Nakuba uMnyango Wemfundo wase-U.S. ukhona, inkambiso yemfundo ingumbuso wezwe nezwe. Izwe libeka izindinganiso zohlelo, izimfuneko, kanye nezindlela zokuxhasa imali. Wonke umFundi Wezempumelelo (ESSA) ka-2015] unikeza izimemezelo zokulawula imingcele ezithi thwaliselayo uma kuqhathaniswa nezifundo zalo ezandulelwa phambili, uNomntwana Oshin Shin. Nokho, imithetho yamalungelo omphakathi elwela amalungelo omphakathi isasebenza ngokususa imvume futhi ivikele abafundi abakhubazekile. Amabhodi esikole somphakathi nezikhulu zezindawo ezisekuhlolweni ezisemthethweni, izikole, nelungelo zesikole, iLBTQ, ibonakalisa ukuphikisana okuqhubekayo kwemfundo yomphakathi.

Ubulungisa Bobugebengu Nomthetho Ophoqelelwayo

Umthetho wesigebengu ngokuyinhloko uyimisebenzi kahulumeni. Izishaya-mthetho zikahulumeni zichaza ubugebengu obuningi, amaphoyisa agunyaza imithetho, futhi izinkantolo zikahulumeni zijezise izigebengu. Uhulumeni ugxila ekunqamuleni ubugebengu obungavunyelwene nomthetho we-tripbon, ukushushumbisa izidakamizwa, ubuphekula, nokuphulwa kwamalungelo abantu. Nokho, umthetho awucacile. Ngokwesibonelo, ukunqanyulwa kukahulumeni wezwe ensanjeni − iShedyuli Into ngaphansi kwe-Progeal eLawulwe yi-Substancesnces Act. / iphikisana nezishaya-mthetho eziye zagunyaza kwezokwelapha noma i-cannabis. I- Justice Departments i-evicep i-s progatectionsssss ezilawula ukugcinwa kwezindawo ezingokomthetho zezakhamuzi namabhizinisi.

IFederalism: UGrant, AmaManday, nama - commons

Ubuhlobo obuningi bezwe nobuso bezwe namuhla bungumlamuleli wemali. Fiscalism ibhekisela ekusetshenzisweni kweziphakamiso zikahulumeni ekuthonyeni isimiso sikahulumeni. [[FLT:]] Iziphakamiso zemali [ [eg. Community Development Grans] [umgomo]] (umkzendla]], ewukwenza ihlulele ngokwengeziwe. [FLT:], ess.[FLT]]] [FLD]]] [FLT]] [5] [5] imibandela ediyokunyelisayokunyela imfutho ekhethekile [inani eliyi-FLT]] iveza imibandela ekhethekile yezentengonyakanyaka ka-195] [5] [ivotiventi:] i-FFT], kodwa iveza intevovovolution engathi inzuzo ekhethekile yeze lemali ekhethekile, kodwa i-Foctive

Phakathi nobhadane lwe-COVID-19, uhulumeni waphambili. Uhulumeni wanikeza izigidigidi zosizo ezizweni nakwabantu ngabanye nge- CARES Act ne American Replation Plan, uhlanganisa izimo ekuxhaseni imfundo nezinzuzo zokuswela umsebenzi. Ezinye izifundazwe zasebenzisa imali ekubhekaneni nezidingo zobhadane; ezinye zasebenzisa lokho ezakubona kunguhulumeni ziseqophelweni eliphansi. Le nhlekelele yaveza kokubili isidingo semithombo kahulumeni kanye nokuxabana okubangelwa yimali ehambisana nemibandela.

Izinselele Nezimpikiswano Zamanje

Igunya Lombuso Ezimpikiswano Zezinkinobho Ezishisayo

Izihloko ezinjengokufuduka, ukukhipha isisu, nokulawula izibhamu kuhlola ngokuphindaphindiwe imingcele kahulumeni. Arima v. United States [20202], iNkantolo Ephakeme yagadla izingxenye eziyinhloko ze-SB, i-Prizona, iphethe umthetho wezezesintulo wamazwe ovela kwamanye amazwe, uhlonze imingcele yezwe. [[FLT:] [FLT]]] Dobbes v. Jackson of Health Organization [202]] Isinqumo se-Arignomes [202] sihlehlise [iiiinselele] [FLT]. Wade v[FLT] ibuye ikhiphe umthetho wokukhipha isisu, futhi ibuye ikhiphe imithetho eguquguqukayo. Impikiswano yezombangazwe ibone ukuthi ikhona ngenxa yeze futhi impikiswano yeze ihlulelelo.

Ukulingana Nokuthola Izindawo Ngaphesheya Kwamazwe

I-Federalist ingaveza umehluko omkhulu. Izakhamuzi zezifunda ezinezinhlelo zomphakathi eziphanayo zingajabulela i-Medicaid, ikhefu lomkhaya elikhokhelwayo, noma izimali zemfundo ephakeme ezinikezwa izakhamuzi zezinye izifunda ezingazitholi. Ngokuphambene, izikhulu zezindawo ezilinganiselwe ezilawulayo zingaheha amabhizinisi kodwa zishiye izisebenzi noma abathengi besengozini. Ubhadane lwe-CHOVID-19 luqokomisa lezindawo eziwumshayabhuqe: izifunda zezimiso zezempilo zomphakathi eziqinile zikwazi kangcono kunalezo ezingaphandle, futhi zikwazi ukuthola izitomathi futhi zihlole izinto ezihlukahlukene. Ukwehluka okunjalo kungaphakamisa imibuzo engoko ukuthi i-ganomthetho wobuzwe ukhuthaza ilungelo elithandekayo noma ukungana nokunganakwa.

Ukushintsha Kwezombangazwe NobuProfethi

Njengoba amaqembu amabili ayinhloko ehlelwa kakhulu ngokwemibono yendawo, uhulumeni ungahlukanisa indawo. Izifundazwe ezibomvu kanye nezifundazwe eziluhlaza zidlulisa imithetho ehlukene ekushintsheni kwesimo sezulu, amalungelo okuvota, kanye nezindaba zezenhlalo, ukuqinisa amasiko kanye nokuhlanganisa izifundazwe. Lokhu kubangela ukuphikisana kwezingxabano zezifundazwe, njengalapho amazwe emangalela omakhelwane ngokungcoliswa kwendawo ezungezile noma uma ababusi benqaba ukuvalela iziboshwa ezikhungelwe ubugebengu kwezinye izizwe. I-Frederalisism futhi yenza ukuba kube nokumelana kwemithetho kahulumeni, njengoba kubonakala “ngemizamo yokwakha izifunda zezindawo nezokuthutha.

Ikusasa LobuFande

Ukulawula Kwezobuchwepheshe Nezinombolo

I-Internet ne-minutture iletha izinselele ezintsha ze-socialism. Ngokwesibonelo, imfihlo yokwaziswa i-social producement: California’s Consumerfict (CCPA) iqinile kunemithetho kahulumeni, futhi amanye amazwe athatha imithetho efanayo. Ukungabikho komthetho wemfihlo kahulumeni obanzi wezwe kusho amabhizinisi ahamba ngemithetho enzima kahulumeni. Ngasikhathi sinye, i-Comee Clausle arguayth winds inikeza igunya lokulawula i-e no-agcommeternet, kodwa i-proglock yezombangazwe ivivile ivimbela isimiso esifanayo. Indlela uhulumeni owezweyo esazisholo zomnotho ozokwakha ngayo ukuma kwe-ombuthono ye-om.

Ukushintsha Kwesimo Sezulu Nokubambisana Kwendawo Ezungezile

Isimiso sendawo ezungezile sinye inkundla lapho izindima zikahulumeni nombuso zincintiswana khona. I-Ceaose Air Act ne-Clean Water Act imisa izindinganiso zikahulumeni, kodwa i-odoc imisa i-computer. California, enesithasi sokukhipha izimoto esikhethekile ngaphansi koMthetho, imisa izindinganiso zayo siqu zokukhipha izimoto . Izindawo ezingase zivuleke ezinye izifunda zomhlaba. Uma uhulumeni uhlela emuva imithetho yendawo ezungezile, izifunda ngokuvamile ngemithetho eqinile. Ngokuphikisana nomthetho owe-coceneyo (umz., ukukhuthulula imingcele ye-transcheadssssssss) kudinga ukuhlanganiswa kwezwelonke, ngenxa yokushintsha kwayo imbulunga yonke kanye ne-66, kungaqhubelela phambili egunyeni elikhulu kakhulu lombuso, kodwa i-omasipala lihlala libalulekile.

Izinhlangano Zomphakathi Neziqu Zomlotha Zibangela Amandla

I-Federalism iveza amaphuzu amaningi okucindezela ushintsho lwezenhlalo. Izinhlangano zingasekela isilinganiso sendawo, ukunqoba ezindlu zomthetho, bese ziphoqelela ukuba kuthathwe izishayano zesizwe. Inhlangano yomshado yokulingana, ngokwesibonelo, yaqala ngokukhipha izinqumo zenkantolo nezenzo zomthetho phambi kweNkantolo Ephakeme Obergefell v. Hodges isinqumo esidingekayo ezweni lonke. Ngokufanayo, ukusekela inguquko yezephula umthetho, ukunyuka kwemithetho yezephula umthetho, futhi amalungelo okuvota ngokuvamile asebenza ngokwesimende (679bygroputotate) ukuze akhe umfutho. Ngakho i-Federalism isebenza njengesithiyombili isithiyo sokushintsha ngokushesha kwesizwe nesikhungo sezesayensi yokucwaninga eqhubekayo.

Isiphetho

UFederalism uyisici esiyinhloko sikahulumeni waseMelika, ukulinganisa isidingo sobunye besizwe nezinzuzo zokuzibusa kwendawo. Kusukela ekulweni kwaBasunguli ekubonakaliseni kwabo kwanamuhla kwezempilo, imfundo, nomthetho wobugebengu, ukuhlukaniswa kwamandla phakathi kukahulumeni nombuso kuyaqhubeka kuzenzakalela. Ukuqonda ukubusa kukahulumeni kusho ukuqaphela ukuthi ukubusa e-U.S. akunandawo ephakathi kuphela futhi akunasizo oluhloniphekile, futhi akunakuhloniseka okuqinile, futhi kuyisibopho esinamandla, ngokuvamile esiphikisanayo. Njengoba izinselele ezintsha zezobuchwepheshe, ukushintsha kwesimo sezulu, nokushintsha kwezombangazwe, izimiso zezombangazwe, kuyovivinywa, kodwa ukuqina kwayo kusikisela ukuthi umklamo woMsunguli usenakho okuningi. Kubafundi, abafundisi, nezakhamuzi, ukuthatha isilinganiso esiqinile sezwe esiyinhloko sezenzweni esiqhubekayo.