Isisekelo Sikahulumeni Olinganiselwe

Amandla kahulumeni, ayisisekelo sawo, amelela igunya lombuso lokwakha nokuphoqelela imithetho, intela ye-levy, ukugcina ukuhleleka, nokunikeza izimpahla zomphakathi. Emfundisweni yentando yeningi, lo mbuso usuka ekwamukeleni kwababuswayo futhi bekhona ukuze bafeze okuhle okukodwa. Nokho umlando ufundisa ukuthi igunya elikhethekile, ngisho noma ekuqaleni linikezwe izinjongo ezihloniphekile, lingaba usongo olusheshayo ekukhululekeni. Inselelelo ebhekene nawo wonke umphakathi wentando yeningi ukuthi ungawunika kanjani amandla anele okusebenza ngokuphumelela kuyilapho uvimbela ukuphambanga. Lokhu kufinyelelwa ngezakhiwo eziyinkimbinkimbi zokulinganisela ezakhelwe eqenjini yomthetho nesisekelo wezwe.

Imisuka yefilosofi kahulumeni olinganiselwe ibuyela emuva esikweni lenhlanganisela yezenhlalo enjenge-John Locke, owaphikisa ngokuthi abantu badela amanye amalungelo abo angokwemvelo ukuze bavikele ukuphila kwabo, inkululeko, nempahla. Imibono ka-Locke yathonya kakhulu abahleli be-flamers be-United States Constitution, abadala ngamabomu isimiso lapho amandla “aqala ahlukaniswa khona abese ewalwa” ukuqapha ngokumelene nombuso wentando yeningi. I-Federalist Paps, ikakhulukazi Federalist No., edumile, ichaza isimiso sokuthi“ imfutho kumelwe yenziwe ukuba ilwe.” Lokhu kuhlelwa kokubekwa kwemithetho yentando yeningi kuhlale kuhlala kungudindiwe futhi kuqhubeke ukugcuntshiswa.

Amalungiselelo Omthetho: Imingcele Elotshiwe Nengabhaliwe

Umthetho-sisekelo, kungakhathaliseki ukuthi ubhaliwe noma awubhalwanga, usebenza njengesimiso esiphezulu somthetho esichaza izinga nemingcele yeziphathimandla zikahulumeni. Imithetho-sisekelo yenza imisebenzi emibili ebucayi: inikeza umbuso futhi ngesikhathi esifanayo iveza izinqabo kuleyomibuso. Lemithetho ithatha uhlobo lwezikhungo ezibaliwe, izimfuneko zokwakha, kanye nemithetho evimbela abadlali bakahulumeni ukuba bangayidluli ngokomthetho.

Ibhalwe ama-v. Imithetho-sisekelo engabhalwanga

Umthetho-sisekelo we-United States uyisibonelo esivelele senqubo ebhaliwe, ebumbeneyo nenqubo eqinile yokulungisa. Ibala ngokucacile amandla kahulumeni kahulumeni eSiphakamiso I, isiqephu 8, bese inezela izingqimba zokulinganiselwa eSigqeni samalungelo abantu kanye nezinguquko ezilandelayo. Ngokungafani, iUnited Kingdom isebenza ngaphansi komthetho-sisekelo ongabhaliwe wemithetho, umthetho ovamile, imibuthano yephalamende, nemibhalo egunyaziwe enjenge- Magna Carta kanye [[FLT:] ne [FLT:] BB yelungelo elingekho ngaphansi kwemithetho ebhalwe phansi, nasemabhukwini engokomthetho engokomthetho engokomthetho ephethe ephethe, umthetho we-Octivementalgist, ne-octivemental. Izenzo ezibonisa ukumelana nomthetho womthetho womthetho ongokomthetho womthetho ongokomthetho ongokomthetho, zingalinganiswa ngokumelene nokusetshenziswa kwemithetho engokomthetho ongokomthetho.

Imihlangano Yomthetho - sisekelo

Ngaphandle kwemibhalo elotshiwe, idemokrasi eningi incike emihlanganweni ebophayo engekho ngokomthetho kodwa ephethe amandla ezombangazwe angathi ukuyephula kungabangela ukuphambana okukhulu. Ngokwesibonelo, e-UK, umhlangano inkosi okumelwe iwuvumele noma imuphi umthetho odluliswe yiPhalamende awuzange wenqatshwe eminyakeni engaphezu kwamakhulu amathathu. ECanada, umhlangano kahulumeni ophethe ongokomthetho ufuna ukuba umfundisi oyinhloko ashiye imvume yokuvota, nakuba ingekho umthetho oyiphoqelelayo. Lemihlangano isebenza njengemigoqo yenkululeko kahulumeni, iqinisa umthetho ngaphandle kokufuna ukungenela kokwahlulela.

Ukuhlukana Kwamandla: Isibonelo Samaqoqo

Ukwahlukana kwemibuso yisimiso sokwakha esihlukanisa igunya likahulumeni phakathi kwamagatsha amathathu ahlukene: i-pagiant, isikhulu, ne-jaji. Lokhu kuhlukanisa kuvimbela noma iliphi indikimba eyodwa ekuqoqeni amandla okwenza, ukuphoqelelwa, nokuchaza imithetho ngesikhathi esisodwa. Umqondo waqoshwa kakhulu isazi sezombangazwe esingumFulentshi [[FLT]] uMentesqueutsquous emsebenzini wayo , ophikisa ukuthi inkululeko yezombangazwe idinga amandla okuhlola ngelungiselelo lezinto. Namuhla, cishe zonke izinqubo zombuso wentando yentando yeningi zanamuhla zihlanganisa ezinye izinguqulo zalo hlelo lohambo oluvamile, nakuba izakhiwo zemibuso ehlukene kakhulu.

Igatsha Elingokomthetho: Ukushaya Imithetho Njengekhasi

Igatsha lezesivumelwano, elivame ukuba yiphalamende noma ingqungquthela, ngokuyinhloko linomthwalo wemfanelo wokwenza nokumisa imithetho. Ngenxa yokuthi izishayamthetho ngokuvamile ziyakhethwa futhi kumelwe ziphendule abameleli, isishaya-mthetho singasebenza njengesehlo esiqondile sokukhokha izikhulu eziphaphakele ngezindlela eziningi. Okwesibili, amandla [ esikhwama semali anika izikhulu zendlu yomthetho igunya elikhethekile lokuvumela izimali nezindleko zikahulumeni, ngaleyondlela alinganisele ikhono lesikhulu sokukhokha izivumelwano ngaphandle kwemvume. Okwesibili, amakomiti esazi segatsha e-crogiate angahlola imisebenzi yezempasikhundla, ukulanda izikhulu zeze ubufakazi, nokufuna izincwadi, ikakhulukazi ezimisweni ezihlanganisa amagunya azimele nezinhlangano ezizimele., emishinini eminingi, kumelwe izikhulu zikamongameli, iqinisekise ukuhlelwa kwezinhlangano kanye nezivumelwano ezinjalo ze-radmignstrune.

Igatsha Eliphethe: Ukuphoqelela Imingcele

Igatsha eliphethe, eliqondiswa umongameli, undunankulu, noma ikhathemende, libekwe icala lokusebenzisa nokumisa imithetho edluliswa yisishaya-mthetho. Nokho amandla alo awaphelele. Izikhulu azikhulu azikwazi ukuphatha izimali ezifanele ngaphandle kwemvume yemithetho, futhi kumelwe zihambisane nezimiso ezingokomthetho ezilinganiselayo ngokungenamcimbi. Isikhulu sanamuhla sesiye sakhula kakhulu futhi safinyelela, kodwa isimiso esiyisisekelo sisalokhu: isikhulu kumelwe sisebenze phakathi kwemingcele emiswe umthetho wemithetho ye-gractical ne-stative. Uma isikhulu sidlula leyo mingcele, i-jajitary sihlala sikulungele ukungenela. Ngaphezu kwalokho, ukulawula kwezindaba zempi nakwamanye amazwe kuvame ukumiswa kwemithetho yempi, izivumelwano zezivumelwano zesivumelwano, nokuhlelwa kwemithetho yemithetho yemithetho.

Igatsha Lokwahlulela: Igalelo Lokulinganiselwa

Ijaji lichaza imithetho futhi lixazulule izingxabano. Ngokwenza kanjalo, lisebenza njengomgcini wokugcina wemingcele engokomthetho ebekwe kuwo wonke amagatsha kahulumeni. Ijaji elizimele, elingenazo ukuphazamisa kwezombangazwe, lingazephula umthetho noma izenzo zezikhulu ezitholakala ziphula amalungiselelo omthetho. Lamandla [ase- angokomthetho [awumthetho] aphinde ahlolwe [ ngokusemthethweni] anamandla kakhulu futhi ayizihlolo eziqondisi ezimele zohulumeni. Izikhulu zikahulumeni ziqinisekisa futhi ukuthi izikhulu zikahulumeni zilandela inqubo efanele futhi zihlonipha amalungelo ahlukahlukene. Ezimisweni eziningi, izinkantolo zingayala umthetho wokuvimbela izenzo ezingekho emthethweni, ukukhulula abantu ababoshwe ngokungekho emthethweni, nokulimaza izakhamuzi eziye zaphula amalungelo azo. Ukuzingacukunga komthetho okuzigunyaza ngokuqondile nokuzigunya kwemithetho kahulumeni.

Ama - eck nokulinganisela: Ukudlala Okuwusizo

Nakuba ukuhlukaniswa kwemibuso kudala amagatsha ahlukene, ukuhlola nokulinganisela kunikeza igatsha ngalinye amathuluzi okulinganisela amanye, kwakha isimiso esinamandla sokuvimbelana. Le midlalo ayiklanyelwe ukuphumelela kodwa ukuvuselela ukunqwabelana kwamandla. Izinqubo eziningana eziyinhloko zibonisa indlela ukuhlolwa nokulinganisela okusebenza ngayo.

  • Ukubusa nokudlula: e-United States, umongameli angawukhipha umthetho odluliswe yi-Congress, kodwa uKhongolo-kanye angawususa lowo mthetho ngenani eliphindwe ka-3-3 emagumbini womabili. Lokhu kuphoqelela umphathi ukuba ayekelele kumthetho wendlu yomthetho noma afake izingozi zokungavumelani nawo.
  • Ukumiswa kwe- Jodicician nokuqinisekiswa: Umphathi umisa amajaji, kodwa indlu ephezulu yendlu yomthetho-mthetho kumelwe ibaqinisekise. E-U, ukuqulwa kwesiqiniseko seSigele seNkantolo Ephakeme sekuye kwaba sekwezombangazwe kakhulu, okusebenza njengesehlo sokulingana kwemibono yejaji.
  • Ukuhlolela nokususa: Isishaya-mthetho sinegunya lokukhipha umphathi omkhulu noma ezinye izikhulu eziphakeme ngenxa “yobugebengu obukhulu kanye namaphutha.] Lokhu mhlawumbe kuyi-sekisi elinzima kakhulu, njengoba kungaqeda umongameli futhi kubeka umphathi ophethe icala eliqondile lokuziphatha okubi.
  • Imithetho esemthethweni e-US: kwamanye amazwe, isishaya-mthetho silondoloza amandla okususa iziqondiso zezikhulu ngesinqumo esilula (nakuba amavetoe anjalo emithetho yemithetho alinganiselwe e-US ngeNkantolo Ephakeme INS v. Chad[ha]). Imisho yelanga iqeda ngokuzenzekelayo imithetho ethile noma izinhlelo ezithile ngemva kwenkathi emisiwe ngaphandle kokuba ivunyelwe kabusha, iphoqelela ukwenziwa kwemithetho yokuhlela ngokusha.
  • Isivumelwano kanye nemvume yezivumelwano: E-US, iSigele kumelwe sivume ezivumelwaneni ngevoti engu-3, ivimbela umphathi ukuba angabophi isizwe nhlobo kamuva ezivumelwaneni zomhlaba wonke ezingenakusekelwa kwemithetho.

Lezi zinqubo azizona nje eziqanjiwe; ziye zahlolwa ngokuphindaphindiwe kuwo wonke umlando. Ngokwesibonelo, uMongameli uFranklin D. Roosevelt ka1973 “icebo lokufaka icala” lahluleka kakhulu ngenxa yokuthi uMkhandlu nomphakathi wawuyibheka njengomzamo wokululaza ukuzibusa kokwahlulela, ubonisa ukuthi ukuhlolwa nokulinganisela kuxhomeke futhi ezimisweni zezombangazwe nasemibonweni yomphakathi.

Ukubukeza Kokwahlulela: Isihluthulelo Semingcele Yomthetho - sisekelo

Ukubukeza kokwahlulela kungamandla ezinkantolo okuhlola ubukho bezenzo zomthetho-mthetho nezobuphathi. Kuyinqubo eqondile engokomthetho yokuqinisa imingcele ebekwa umthetho-sisekelo kuhulumeni. Ngaphandle kokubukezwa kokwahlulela, umthetho-sisekelo uba yincwadi nje yezombangazwe ngaphandle kokuphoqelelwa.

Imvelaphi Nokutholwa Kwabantwana Bendawo Yonke

Umqondo wokubukeza kokwahlulela wamiswa ngokudumile kuMadison (1803) eUnited States, lapho uMadison uMahluleli omkhulu uJohn Marshall agomela khona ukuthi “kuyisifundazwe esiqinile nesibopho somnyango wokwahlulela ukusho ukuthi umthetho uyini.” Kusukela ngaleso sikhathi, ukubukeza kokwahlulela kuye kwasakazekela kudemokramente eziningi, nakuba izinga nokwakheka kwayo kuhlukene. EJalimane, iNkanto yeNkantolo yoMthetho-mthetho kahulumeni ayibukeli nje kuphela imithetho ehambelanayo noMthetho oMthethweni Oyisisekelo kodwa futhi izwa izikhalo zomthetho-mthetho. ECanada, iNkanto ePhakakhulu ingashaya imithetho ngaphansi kwakho kokubili iSahlulo Samalungelo neNkulumbuso, nakuba isigaba semibuso, nakuba ingasebenzi kakhulu kwemithetho yemithetho ehlangene.

Izimpawu Eziwuphawu Ezathonya Imingcele

  • Marbury v. Madison (1803, US): wamisa isimiso sokuthi izinkantolo zikahulumeni zinamandla okushaya imithetho engekho ngokwemithetho, ukumisa indima yejaji njengegatsha elilinganayo.
  • Brown v. Board of Education (1954, US): yadlulela phambili [imfundiso] ehlukene kodwa elingana” futhi yamemezela ukuhlukaniswa kwezinhlanga ezikoleni zomphakathi ngaphandle komthetho, ibonisa indlela ukuhlolwa komthetho okungaqinisa ngayo amalungelo ayisisekelo ngisho nakumthetho omkhulu.
  • Roe v. Wade (1973, US): Waqaphela ilungelo lomthetho-sisekelo lokweqa okuhlanganisa nesinqumo sowesifazane sokuqeda ukukhulelwa, siqokomisa indima yejaji ekuvikeleni inkululeko yomuntu ngamunye ekuphazanyisweni kwemithetho.
  • Miller v. Unobhala weZwe lokuphuma kwe-European Union (2017, UK):[ INkantolo ePhakeme ye-UK yanquma ukuthi uhulumeni ngeke ushukumise iSiphakamiso 50 ukuba sishiye i-European Union ngaphandle koMthetho wePhalamende, iqinisekisa ukuthi ngisho nokusebenzisa kwesikhulu amandla okulawula kulinganiselwe ngezimiso zomthetho-mthetho kanye nobukhosi bePhalamende.
  • Kesavanda Bharati v. State of Kerala (1973, eNdiya):[ INkantolo ePhakeme yaseNdiya yamisa “imfundiso yesisekelo esiphansi,” iphethe ukuthi ngisho nezinguquko zomthetho-sisekelo azinakuguqula uhlelo oluyisisekelo loMthetho-sisekelo wamaNdiya, ngaleyondlela zivikela izinto eziyisisekelo zedemokhrasi emaphaleni acushi.

Lamacala abonisa ukuthi ukubukezwa kokwahlulela kubalulekile ekuhumusheni imingcele engekho emthethweni ewumthetho - sisekelo ibe isivikelo esiqinile.

Ubudlelwane: Amandla Okuhlukanisa Aphakeme Ngokwengeziwe

Ngaphandle kokuhlukaniswa okuqondile kwemibuso phakathi kwamagatsha, amazwe amaningi asebenzisa uhulumeni njengethuluzi elimile lokulinganisela igunya likahulumeni. i-Federalism ihlukanisa amandla phakathi kohulumeni abaphakathi (besizwe) nohulumeni bezwe (owesifunda, isifunda, noma isifunda), ngamunye onendawo yakhe yokuzibusa. Lokhu kubusa okumbaxambili kunciphisa ukunqwabelana kwamandla futhi kunikeza izingxenyana ezengeziwe zesivikelo samalungelo abantu ngabanye nezithakazelo zendawo.

Indlela Uhulumeni Ozimele Olihlola Ngayo Igunya Eliphakathi

Esimisoni sikahulumeni, uhulumeni omkhulu awunakukuguqula isigaba esisodwa sokuhlukanisa amagunya, njengoba izinguquko ezinjalo zidinga ukuthatha izinyathelo ezinkulu kakhulu egcekeni noma ukuvunyelwa yizinhlangano ezingozwe zonke. Ngaphezu kwalokho, ohulumeni bezizwe ngezizwe bangasebenza njengezindawo zokuhlola idemokrasi, bazame izimiso ezihlukene futhi banikeze izakhamuzi indawo ehlukile. Uma uhulumeni ophakathi unamandla okulawula, amazwe noma izifundazwe zingabekela inselele izenzo zawo ezinkantolo, njengoba kunezici eziningi zemithetho yemithetho yezomthetho esekelwe eS Court Trial Court, njenge United States v. Lopez (1995) [195], okunganciphisa igunya leMikhandlu ngaphansi kwe-Clast Claus. ECanada, isifundazwe siye saphikisa ngokuphumelelayo ukuthi imithetho eminingi yezembubhishobhisi esekelwe embusweni yezembubhishobhini neyase. Izikhulu ze-R.[FLT] Izikhulu eziphambili zegunyaza noma imibuso ezihlangene ezibusayodwa.[Flvin: 1]

Izibonelo Zezakhiwo Ezizimele

I-United States, Canada, Australia, i-Australia, i-Indiya, ne-Brazil zonke zisebenzisa izimiso zikahulumeni eziqinile. Ngazinye zinendlela yazo yokulinganisela i-patment nesifunda. iSisekelo soMthetho weSisekelo inikeza Länder [ [imibuso] [imibuso]] (izimo) eziphawulekayo emfundweni yemfundo, i-plocation, nempucuko, kuyilapho ibeka isibonelo sokubambisana sombuso wezwe esifuna ukuhlelwa kwesinqumo esihlangene ezindaweni eziningi. Ngokungafani, umthetho we-siNdiya unikeza igunya elikhulu kakhulu kodwa usagcinela amandla aphinde abekwe amazwe nohulumeni abaphakathi ukuba akhiphe isimo ngaphansi kwezimo ezilinganiselwe. Izimiso zezimiso zesimiso sezimiso zesimiso sezwe ezisekwehlukana ezisezingeni eliphakathi zikhonziwa zisebenza ezisezindaweni zezombangazwe.

Ukulandisa Komphakathi: Izakhamuzi Njengenhlolo - vo Yokugcina

Asikho isimiso sokuhlola okungokomthetho esiphelele ngaphandle kokuhileleka kwezakhamuzi okusebenzayo. Izinqubo zokulandisa komphakathi ziqinisekisa ukuthi izikhulu zikahulumeni ziyaqhubeka zisabela futhi ababuswayo banezindlela zokuhlola, ukubhikisha, nokuthatha indawo yalezo ezinamandla. Lezizinqubo ziyisisekelo sokugunyazwa kwentando yeningi.

Ukukhetha Okukhululekile Nokufanele

Ukhetho oluvamile luyindlela eqondile izakhamuzi ezingalinganisela ngayo amandla kahulumeni. Uma abavoti bengakhetha phakathi kwabancintisanayo namaqembu, futhi lapho lezo zinqumo zihlonishwa, izikhulu zikahulumeni zibhekene nesisusa esakhelwe ngaphakathi ukuze zenze isithakazelo somphakathi noma zisuse izingozi. Nokho, okhetho luphumelela kuphela njengomngcele uma bencintisana ngempela, bengenaso ukuphoqelelwa noma ukukhwabanisa, futhi uma abavoti bekwazi ukuthola ukwaziswa okwanele mayelana nabazofuna ukubhalisa izivumelwano zemali, amakhomishane ehmpyutha yokuvo, kanye nemithombo engakhethi edinga ukuqinisekisa ukuthi ukhetho lusebenza njengesigxivizo esinengqondo kunokuba isigxivizo senjo.

Inkululeko Yolwazi Nemithetho Yokubonisana

Ukuze izakhamuzi zibone ukuthi uhulumeni unecala, kumelwe zazi ukuthi yini eyenzekayo. Inkululeko Yomthetho Wokwaziswa (FOIA) imithetho emazweni anjenge-U, UK, Canada, ne-Australia inikeza umphakathi ilungelo elingokomthetho lokuthola izincwadi zikahulumeni nemibhalo, ebekelwe imingcele elinganiselwe yokungavikeleki kwesizwe nokungasese. Lemithetho ivumela izintatheli, abacwaningi, namaqembu abaphathi ukuba bavule inkohlakalo, udoti, noma ukukhohlakala kwezelelwa kwemithetho esemthethweni, nokuvula izinyathelo ezigunyazazisayo ezinikeza izakhamuzi amandla okuqondisa uhulumeni wabo ngaphandle kokubona obala.

Imithombo Yezindaba Nezakhamuzi

Iphephandaba elikhululekile nelizimele lisebenza njenge- “mapasethi e-Otergate,” esebenza njenge-gard edalula ukuziphatha okubi, ifundisa umphakathi, nezimiso zokulawula. I-panentigati yezezimali ifeza indima ebalulekile ngokomlando ekunqamuleni izindaba zokuxhashazwa kukahulumeni, kusukela ePentagon Papers ukuya ehlazweni le-Watergate. Ngokufanayo, izinhlangano zomphakathi — kuhlanganise nezingafaki inzuzo, amaqembu acabanga amathangi, nezinyunyana zemisebenzi — ukuhlobisa izakhamuzi, ukuqhuba inseleleka, ukuqunga amafayela, nokusekela icala. Isibonelo, izinhlangano ezinjenge [[FLT][FLT] kanye [FOL:] kanye [FOLT] kanye] ne [FOFON] Izivumelwano zemithetho yomphakathi] [FFOT] kahulumeni] kahulumeni, izikhali ezingokomthetho zokubuthenwa kwezeleleka, futhi izivumelwano zenkantolo zokukhothomu yomphakathi, izikhulu ezingokomthetho, kanye nezinqulumo zomphakathi, kanye nezinqulumo zomthetho zezikhulu.

Izinselele Zamandla Kahulumeni Esikhathi Esizayo

Nakuba ukwakheka kokulinganiselwa kumiswe kahle, izenzakalo eziningana zanamuhla zicindezela ikhono lalezinqubo lokuvimbela uhulumeni ngokuphumelelayo.

Ukwanda Kwamandla Aphethe

Ebuthweni lentando yeningi, abaqondisi baye banqwabelana amandla amasha okusabela ezinkingeni, ukuhwebelana kwembulunga yonke, kanye nobunkimbinkimbi benqubo yesimanje. Ukusetshenziswa kwenqubo ye- yemiyalo ebulalayo kanye [FLT] ne namandla amasha amakhulu ayanda kakhulu, avame ukudlula inqubo yomthetho womthetho womthetho owesivumelwano owehlisa ijubane nowenziwe ngemvume. Phakathi komqedazwe, ohulumeni abaningi bafaka imingcele ekuhambeni, engqungquthelekeni, nakwekwekwekwengamele ukufakwa kwemithetho emisha noma ukuphatha. Nakuba izenzo ezinjalo zingathethelelwa ngokwezimo eziphuthumayo, zifaka engozini ehlala njalo ngaphandle kokuba izigebeqelezeli zokwahlulela nokubukelo oluqinile. Ukusetshenziswa kwesimiso sokulawula ngenqubo yezomthetho wezwe, imibandela yezomthetho yezwe, imingcele yemithetho yezwe nemithetho yezomthetho eqhubekayo.

Imishini Yamanani Namalungelo Okuzifihla

Ukwanda kobuchwepheshe bezemishini kuye kwanikeza ohulumeni amandla angenakulinganiswa okuqapha izakhamuzi zabo. Izinhlelo zokuhlola izakhiwo, ukuqoqwa kwemininingwane eminingi, ukuqashelwa kobuso, nokuhlelwa kwamaphoyisa okubikezela kuvumela iziphathimandla ukuba ziqoqe inqwaba yokwaziswa komuntu siqu ngaphandle kokubona okuncane. E-United States, i- Intelligence Surveillance Act (FA)[FLTA] ne-[FLT] Patriot Act yandisa amandla okuhlolwa angohulumeni, iholela ekwambulweni ngemigomo yezigidi zamarekhodi ocingo amaMelika. Izinkantolo ziye zahlasela izinhlelo ezinjalo zokungahlolwa, njengoba izivumelwano zeSibili ze-FUT [FLA] [FFFF][5] kusetshenziswa izigwebo zomthetho ezilawulayo eziqinile.[5]

Ukonakala Nokubanjwa Kwezinhlangano

Uma izikhulu zomphakathi zisebenzisa amandla azo ukuze zizuze, sonke isimiso sokulinganisela siyalulama. Ukonakala kungathatha izindlela eziningi: ukufumbathisa, ukuphambanisa, ukulawula, ukuthatha izimpi ezithathelwanayo, izimpikiswano. Ngisho namasheke nezilinganiso ezisungulwe kahle awenziwe kahle ahluleka uma abantu abawasebenzisayo bekhohlakele. Izinhlangano ezimelene nokungabeki komthetho, imithetho eqinile, nokunyathelisa okukhululekile kubalulekile ekususeni ukonakala. Kodwa kwamanye amazwe, zona kanye izinhlangano eziklanyelwe ukulinganisela amandla kahulumeni — njengezinkantolo zomthetho-mthetho-mthetho-mthetho, izikhomishane, nokuqondisa umthetho — zona ngokwazo zithunjwe abadlali bezombangazwe, zibekwe izikhali zokulawula esikhundleni sokuzilawula. Ukuzibusa kuyinselele.

Indima Yomthetho Wezizwe Zonke

Izivumelwano zamalungelo abantu zamazwe ngamazwe nezinkantolo zomhlaba zimisa imingcele yangaphandle embusweni kahulumeni wezwe. Ngokwesibonelo, i-European Convention on Human Rights neNkantolo yaseYurophu yamaLungelo angabantu ivumela abantu ukuba bagcine ohulumeni babo benecala lokuthathelwa amalungelo abantu, ngisho nalapho amakhambi angaphandle ehluleka. i-International Parance on Populan Rights ne Political Rights [ ishosho izimpawu zokuvikela umehluko wamalungelo abantu. Nakuba umthetho wezizwe zonke ungakwazi ukuqeda ubukhosi bomhlaba ngaphandle kwemvume kahulumeni, ungadala nokucindezela kokuziphatha. Ukuphikisana phakathi kwenkululeko yesizwe nezizwe. Ukuzibophaka kwenkululeko yezizwe nezizwe kuyaqhubeka ukuphikisana kwemibandela yenkululeko, ikakhulukazi ekufuneni ukubusa ngaphandle kwemvume yokubusa.

Isiphetho: Ukudingeka Okuhlala Njalo Kwezingxabano

Ukulinganiselwa kwegunya likahulumeni akusona isithiyo sokulawula okuphumelelayo; yiso kanye isisekelo sohulumeni osemthethweni. Amalungiselelo omthetho, ukuhlukanisa imibuso, ukuhlola nokulinganisela, ukuhlola ukwahlulela, uhulumeni, kanye nokulandisa komphakathi kusebenza ndawonye ukuze kusungulwe isimiso esiqondisa uhulumeni ukuze kuvikelwe amalungelo ezakhamuzi kunokucindezela. Akukho nqubo eyodwa eyanele, futhi konke kudinga ukuqapha okuqhubekayo ukuze kulondolozwe. Izikhulu, izinkantolo, izishayamthetho zomthetho, neziphathi-makhenipho, kumelwe zonke zihlanganyele eprojectal eqhubekayo yokuvimbela amandla. Njengoba izinselele zomphathi owenziwe ngemishini, ukuhlola izibalo, nokukhohlakaza, izimiso ezivezwa abasunguli bemithetho nemithetho zihlala zibalulekile njenganoma nini. Isimiso sokubusa esinempilo sinye lapho amandla ehlala singaphansi, ukuxazululwa komthetho, nokulinganiselwa kwemvume.