Umbango phakathi komthetho wokuvikela uhulumeni nokuziphendulela komphakathi ugxile ekujuleni kwe-unistism. Izwe kumelwe livikelelwe ekuncishisweni okungapheli okungaqeda imithombo yomphakathi futhi kukhubaze ukubusa, kodwa izakhamuzi kumelwe zibe nethuba elinengqondo lokuthatha imvume lapho zidlula imingcele engokomthetho-sisekelo noma ziphula amalungelo abantu. Izakhiwo ezingokomthetho ezithinta lokhu kulinganisela ziye zavela phakathi namakhulu amabili eminyaka ngemithetho yeNkantolo Ephakeme, isenzo sobuhlanga, kanye nezinguquko ezingokombuso. Ukuqonda lesi simiso sibalulekile kunoma ubani okhathalela imingcele efanelekile yamandla kahulumeni nesivikelo senkululeko eyisisekelo.

Ukuqonda Ukuhlangana KoMbusi Wezwe

Imvelaphi Engokomlando

Imfundiso yokuzimela uhulumeni ilandela izimpande zayo kumthetho ovamile wesiNgisi, lapho uBushiqela be-joji bengenakumangalelwa ngaphandle kwemvume yabo. Ngemva kweNguquko yaseMelika, lesi simiso sadluliselwa ezindaweni, kodwa ukusebenza kwayo esimisweni esisha sikahulumeni kwahlala kungapheli. INkantolo Ephakeme ka 1793 [iNkantolo] ikholelwa ukuthi isakhamuzi singaba sesifundazwe esisenkantolo yezwe, isifundazwe esiphikisayo. Izwe [[[FLT] [FLT] [FLT] [1] labangela inkinga engokomthetho. [ishm] [FLT] [FLT] [FLT] [ishm] [ish:3], iNkantolo ephethwe yi-Austriase], isikhulume nge-Adminigorivess, noma i-Estments, noma i-Evertivent, noma i-State, i-Estrivent. i-S. iSifunda samanje samanje sanamuhla

Isisekelo Somthetho - sisekelo Nokuphakama Kwawo

Umbhalo weSichibiyelo seshumi nanye uncinyane, iNkantolo ibambelele ekutheni ilungise izikhala ngokuphuma ngaphandle kwesifundazwe noma ngezindawo. Kodwa iNkantolo Ephakeme ngokushesha yandisa ukufinyelela kwayo. Hans v. uLouisiana[ [1890], iNkantolo yathi ukulungisa futhi kuvimbela izikhala zezakhamuzi enkantolo kazwe, icabanga ukuthi isimiso esikhulu sobukhosi bafakwa ehlelweni lomthetho-mthetho. Kamuva, njengezinqumo [[[FLT:] Extrace New York[[FLT]] [FLT] [3] [19])) futhi izimvume zombili, ngaphandle kwe-Monco.[FLD][9][19][19]

Isihluthulelo Esiya Embusweni Wobukhosi

Naphezu kobubanzi bayo, ukuzivikela kobukhosi akuphelele. Izinga elithile elimiswe kahle livumela ukumangalelwa kwezikhulu zikahulumeni ukuba kuqhubekele phambili ezikhulwini zikahulumeni.

  • ISishayamthetho: Izikhondla-mkhandlu zingasusa imibuso yokugonywa lapho zimisa umthetho ngaphansi kweSikhawu 5 seSichibiyelo se 145. Nokho, iNkantolo Ephakeme imise ibhande eliphezulu: umthetho onqumayo kumelwe “ukuthiwa" futhi kufanele kube ukusabela okulinganayo elungiselelweni lomthetho-mthetho-sisekelo. Icala elinjengo iSikomu seBoerne v. Flores (197) kanye [FLT] [FLT:] K] ne[FLD] KELD. Florida i-Regent [FFF:5]
  • Isimo soVumo: Isifundazwe singasiphazamisa ngokuzithandela isosha ngokuthatha izimali zikahulumeni (zizithobela ukufanelana nemithetho ethile esetshenziswayo), ngokumisa uhulumeni othatha iziphakamiso zesenzo, noma ngokususa icala kuhulumeni ukuya enkantolo ephethe. U-Waivers kumele abe “mthakathi” kanye no-“kakhulu.
  • Exte Young Doctrine: ebizwa ngemva kwecala lika 1908, lemfundiso ivumela izigwebo ezimelene nezikhulu zikahulumeni ukuba zikhululeke ngokuzimela ekuthatheni ukukhululeka okuqhubekayo kokuphulwa komthetho kahulumeni. Ayivumeli ukulimala emphongolweni wezimali kahulumeni. Lendaba eqanjiwe `isikhulu sezwe esingenzi ngokusemthethweni sihluliwe ngegunya elingokomthetho, kanti sivikela ukuvinjelwa kwemithetho engokomthetho engathiyeni lemali.
  • Iziphakamiso Ngaphansi kwe-Federal Bankruptic and Patenty Laws: emongweni olinganiselwe, iNkantolo Ephakeme iye yathi isho ukuthi ivume ngokusikisela ukuthi ifaneleke ngokuhlanganyela embusweni womthetho wombuso kahulumeni. Ngokwesibonelo, e- i-Central Virginia Community College v. Katz [200], iNkantolo inqume ukuthi ukuvikeleka kukahulumeni akusebenzi ekuwiseni ngenxa yokuthi i-Bankruptic Claus iyindawo ye-unicaus.

Imikhawulo Nezici Zalemfundiso

Izazi eziningi ezingokomthetho ziphikisa ngokuthi lemfundiso iye yathathelwa indiva kakhulu, ivumela amazwe ukuba aphunyuke ekuzilandiseni ngokuziphatha okubi. Igebe phakathi kweSichibiyelo seshumi nanye sasekuqaleni ("Prefection") ukunqanda uhulumeni ukuba aphoqelele ukuba akhiphe imibuso ebolekisayo ngokusemthethweni) kanye nokusetshenziswa kwayo kwanamuhla ukuvimbela ukuphulwa kwamalungelo omphakathi kukhulu. Ngaphezu kwalokho, ukuvikela inqubo yokwelapha: isakhamuzi singase sifake imvume yesifunda noma isifunda (okungasatholakali somthetho) ngenxa yokwephulwa okufanayo kokuthi umbuso ungagonyeza imvume yokungamela. Njengoba lokhu kululaza ukugcinwa kwelungelo lomthetho.

Ukubaluleka Kokulandisa Komphakathi

Ukubona Ingaphandle, Ukwethembana, NoMthetho

Umphakathi unomthwalo wokulandisa uyisisekelo sokubusa kwentando yeningi. Uma izikhulu zikahulumeni zazi ukuthi zingabizwa ukuba ziphendule ngezenzo zazo − enkantolo, phambi kwendikimba yemithetho, noma ngokuhlola umphakathi − zisengozini kakhulu ukusebenzisa amandla ngokunakekela. Izimiso zokulandisa zikhuthaza ukubonakala obala: zidalula ukonakala, udoti, nokuphulwa kwamalungelo okungafihleki. Umbuso ongenakubekwa icala ngenxa yenqubo engekho emthethweni ngeke uphinde umelane nokuvikela isisekelo sawo, ushiye izakhamuzi zingazikhonzisi lutho olubalulekile ngohulumeni ophakele. Ukuthembela ezinhlanganweni zomphakathi kuyaphela lapho izakhamuzi ziqaphela ukuthi uhulumeni ungawuphula umthetho ngokujeza.

Imishini Engokomthetho Yokubeka Amazwe Enecala

Imithetho iyithuluzi elivelele kakhulu lokulandisa komuntu ngamunye, kodwa akuyona yodwa.

  • Isimo se-State serekhodi elivulekile ne-open yemithetho yemihlangano:[ Lezimiso zomphakathi ezibonisa obala zivumela izintatheli nabasekeli bangenele amabhukwana nemicimbi, ekhanyisa ukukhanya ngesenzo sombuso.
  • Abaqondisi nojenene abahlolayo: izindikimba ezizimele zingahlola izinhlangano zikahulumeni futhi zikhiphe izituso zokukhuthaza izinguquko zemithetho noma zezikhulu.
  • Izivikelo ze-wistlever:[ Abaqashwa ababika ububi obungaphakathi kukahulumeni wezwe banikeza ukwaziswa okubalulekile okungabangela isenzo sokulungisa.
  • Uphenyo lwezwe nolwesizwe lwamalungelo omphakathi: UMnyango wobulungisa wase-U.S. ungahlola izindlela zokwephulwa kukahulumeni futhi uphoqelele ukuphoqelelwa ngemithetho yemvume.

Kodwa ngayinye yalezi zinqubo inemingcele. Imishini idinga imithombo. Abahlali bamazwe babhekene nokuphindisela. Ukugcinwa kwamalungelo abantu kuxhomeke ekufuneni ukulawulwa kwezombangazwe. Imithetho, kukho konke ukungapheleli kwabo, inikeza umzila oqondile, osekelwe kumalungelo abantu ukuba bafune ukuvuselelwa. Uma igebe lomthetho elilawulayo liyanda, igebe elithatha icala.

Izindleko Zangempela Zezwe Ezingaphezu Kwezinga Elivamile

Cabangela isimo lapho isimiso sejele likahulumeni siphika khona ukunakekelwa kwezokwelapha eziboshweni, siphula iSichibiyelo Sesishiyagalombili. Ngaphansi i-Ex ngxenyee Young, isiboshwa singamangalela umgcini-jele ngokuyalwa. Kodwa uma isiboshwa sesilimele ngokuqhubekayo ekunqatshweni, isijeziso esingekho. Isimo singase singabi naso isisusa semali sokushintsha izindlela zaso, futhi isisulu sithwale izindleko zonke. Ngokusebenza, amalungelo amaningi aphumelelayo awe-odonseka ngenxa yemithetho yokunqanda ukuvinjelwa; avikela ukulimala esikhathini esizayo kodwa awanakukwazi ukuvala umonakalo odlule. Okwamanje, ukuvinjelwa okungaphelele kungaphazamisa umphumela wokuvinjelwa. Isimo esikhona esingazi ukuthi asisoze sihoywa ngokwezimali ngenxa yemithetho yemithetho engokomthetho.

Izindaba ezifanayo ziphakama kwezinye izinkundla. Izifunda ziye zasebenzisa izikhulu ezizimele ukuvimbela isuti ngaphansi kwe-Melika noMthetho wokukhubazeka, i-Age Discivation in Observation Act, ne-Family and Medical Let Act (nemiphumela exubile kuye ngokwesisekelo somthetho-mthetho). Ithemba lokuvikela liye lakuvimbela ukugcinwa kwemithetho yezemvelo esemthethweni emelene nezinhlangano zikahulumeni nezokubhange. Uma uhulumeni ungenawo amandla okuphishekela noma yimuphi umphi umenzi womthetho, ukumangalelwa komthetho womuntu kubalulekile ukugcwalisa izikhala zomthetho.

Ukuhlola Icala Nentuthuko Engokomthetho

Izimpawu Zomlando

Ukuziphendukela kwemvelo kwemfundiso yokuzimela engokwasebukhosini kungalandelelwa ngochungechunge lwamacala avelele aseNkantolo Ephakeme.

  • Chjong v. Georgia [1793] Isinqumo esabangela iSichibiyelo seshumi nanye. INkantolo yathi iSiphakamiso III sokunikeza igunya sadlulela esusweni isakhamuzi esimelene nombuso, sifaka isivikelo somthetho esivamile.
  • .Louisiana (1890): Icala elanwebela umqondo weSichibiyelo seshumi Nenye ku-"izakhamuzi zikahulumeni]. Umbono kaMahluleli Bradley wagcizelela ukuthi ukubuyiselwa kuqukethe isimiso sokuzivikela sombuso.
  • Ex + (08): yamisa inganekwane yokuthi isikhulu sikahulumeni esisebenza ngokungemthetho asisebenzi ngokwesivumelwano kuhulumeni futhi singase sidluliselwe ukukhululeka okungalawuleki. Lokhu kuhlala kuyimoto eyinhloko yokumisa umthetho kahulumeni ngokumelene nezifundazwe.
  • Edelman v. Jordan Ilinganiselwe [[[FLT:]] Extrate Young[ ngokubamba leyonkokhelo esebenzayo yemali engcono kakhulu, inzuzo yezenhlalakahle ivinjelwe ngokungemthetho, ngenxa yokuthi ingevela emphonsweni kahulumeni. Imithetho elindelekile kuphela evunyelwe.
  • I-FOTYN FORNT FORNY of Florida v. Florida (1996]] yasho ukuthi uKhongolo lungawanqabela amandla ombuso okuzivikela ahlukene ngaphansi kweSiphakamiso I (izentengiselwano). Lendaba yawanciphisa kakhulu amandla kahulumeni ukugunyaza izisu ezizimele ngokumelene nezifunda.
  • Alden v. Maine (1999): Ongeziweyo [[[FLT:]] SAMINOLE FURT[ ezinkantolo: umbuso awunakukhonzwa ezinkantolo zawo siqu ngaphandle kwemvume yawo, ngisho nasekuphuleni umthetho kahulumeni, ngaphandle kokuba iKhongolo-kamende i-panedisss ngaphansi kweSiphendulo se-145.
  • Florida Prefterseary Education Infective Board v. College Savens Bank (1999]): iNkantolo yashaya emzamweni womthetho wokuvikela imvume yombuso ekunqandeni izisu ezigunyaziwe ngaphansi kweSiqeshana seSikhawu seSiphendulo seMinyaka Engamashumi Amane, ukuthola ubufakazi obunganele bendlela yokuphulwa kwezwe ukuze kuthethelele ikhambi.

Izimpikiswano Zanamuhla

Ikhulu lama-20 lokuqala liye labona ukubekwa kwemingcele yokuzimela ubukhosi. Allen v. Cooper [20], iNkantolo Ephakeme yathi izikhulu zigonyelwe ekuyekeni kwemithetho esemthethweni ephula isambatho somthetho, ngisho noma i-Congress yayizame ukunqanda ukuvinjelwa kwemithetho eqinile ngaphansi kwe-Remediation Act. UJustice Kagan, ebhalela iNkanto ehlangene, yathi irekhodi lamanje aliwusekelanga i-brocractic, kodwa lashiya umnyango uvulekelwe ukuze i-Congresssress ukuze kwakhiwe umbhalo ocacile. Isinqumo saqokomisa izindleko eziphakeme zokuvikela abaqondisi bemithetho ezisebenzi zabo abagunyazayo. I- Justice Kagan, ibhalwe ngezinhlangano zezomthetho.

Enye indawo efihlwayo yimpi phakathi komthetho kahulumeni ovikelayo nowezwe owehlayo. Ku-Central Virginia Community College v. Katz (2006], iNkantolo yaqopha i-octal enqabile ekuwineni, icabanga ukuthi iBankruptic Claus yasebenza njengenye eqhubekayo ukuthi ibopha bonke abakweletayo, kuhlanganise nezifundazwe. Nokho, ] u-Lac du Flambeau Bay Band weChippay v. I-Calgn[[FLT:] [20]], iNkadelela umzamo wokuveza ukukhokhwasana kwesizwe ezindaweni ezikhohliswayo, ukugcizelela ukulingana komnotho kwemali engokonga.

Ukugcinwa kwendawo ezungezile kumelela enye futhi inkundla yempi. iDolobha lase New York v. Umnyango we-Nzalo yokuHlalanisa iNkathi ye-, izinkantolo zikahulumeni zixabane ukuthi isakhamuzi ngaphansi koMthetho we-Ceast Water Act singamelana yini nezindawo ezithile. Isifunda Sesibili sesifunda sikholelwa ukuthi izifunda zingolondolozwanga ngoba uMkhandlu wawunganqandwanga ngokungenaphutha kulowo mthetho. Izinqumo ezinjalo zishiya izakhamuzi ezingaphetheni ezizimele ngaphandle kwe-somkhakha-mkha wokupho ukuze ziphoqelele imithetho yendawo emelene nabangcolisi bezwe.

Ukuthambekela Kwenkantolo Ephakeme Muva

INkantolo yamanje ePhakathi ibonise ukuzimisela ukuphoqelela imingcele elawulayo ngokuqinile, kodwa futhi ukucacisa izimfundiso. Isinqumo se-almen v. Cooper sicacisa ukuthi uMkhandlu kumelwe ubhale indlela yokuziphatha okubi kukahulumeni ngaphambi kokusebenzisa i-Cult 5 ukuya ekuhlohlwani. . [UMnyango we-Texas we-Safety [Fal Safety [[[FLT]]] [2022] [202]), iNkathi isekela isudi emelene nezwe ngaphansi kweMinyango ehlangeneyo kanye neRompatho Izimiso zokusebenza (URRA) ngokugxila emfundisweni wezenyuko yezenyuko yezentengosi."""""[Foctiveal sholometions programmestionstions")

Ukulinganisela Ngokufanele

Izimfuneko Zemithetho Zokushintsha

Abenzi bemithetho nezazi ezingokomthetho baye bathuthukisa iziphakamiso eziningana zokulinganisela ukulinganisela phakathi kokuzivikela nokulandisa.

  • Isichibiyeli se-Constitualial: Ukhetho oluthatha indawo enkulu lungaba ukushintshwa komthetho-mthetho kunciphe noma kuqedwe ubukhosi bombuso ngenxa yokwephulwa komthetho-sisekelo. Ukulungisa okunjalo kungadinga ukusekelwa okukhulu futhi kubhekene nezithiyo eziphakeme.
  • Ukusebenzisa imali ngokusemthethweni:[[FLT: 1]] IziKhomishane zingakhuthaza izimo zokuvimbela ukunqanda ngokufaka izimo ezicacile ezivumelwaneni zikahulumeni. Lokhu kakade sekwenziwe ezindaweni ezithile, ukwamukela izimali zezokuthutha zikahulumeni ngokuvamile kudinga imibandela yokuvumelana ngaphansi kwemithetho emelene nokungavumelani. Ukuqinisa nokwandisa lezizimo kungandisa ukulandisa ngaphandle kokuqondisa ngokuqondile.
  • Ingxenye 5 I-Enforcement: I-Congress ingavikela ngokuphumelela kakhulu ngokuhlanganisa amarekhodi omthetho wemithetho anamandla abonisa ukwaphulwa kwamalungelo eSichibiyelo seMiphetho ye 144. [ idolobha lase Boerne lidinga ukulinganiswa, ukuqoqwa kobufakazi okucophelelayo kubalulekile.
  • Isimo seTort Accountings ne Waivers: Izifunda eziningi ziye zamisa imithetho yazo ethi ukuvikela imfucumfucu ngokwezimo ezithile, ngokuvamile ilinganiselwe ngamakhephu emali encishiwe. Abameleli bangacindezela inqwaba yezintambo zokudla kanye nezikepisi eziphezulu, ziqinisekise ukuthi izakhamuzi zinekhambi elanele ezinkantolo zazo.
  • Ukudala kweCetary yeFederal Cange of Action Against States: Ingqungquthela ingadala imbangela entsha kahulumeni yokuthatha isinyathelo ngokukhethekile ngokumelene nemibuso yemithetho-sisekelo, efanekiselwa indlela esetshenziswa endaweni yeBankruptic Claus. Umthetho-sisekelo awuqiniseki ngaphansi kwesibonelo samanje.

Indima Yemithetho - sisekelo KaHulumeni Nezenzo Zokuhloba

Nakuba ukunaka okukhulu kubhekiselwa emthethweni-mthetho-sisekelo kahulumeni, imithetho-mthetho kahulumeni ngokuvamile inikeza isivikelo esizimele. Imithetho-mthetho eminingi kahulumeni inemiyalo yayo yokuzimela, kodwa eminye ifuna ukuba isishaya-mthetho sichaze isilinganiso sale mithetho. Inani lemibuso liye laqeda ngokuphelele ukuvikeleka kwezinhlobo ezithile zemithetho, njengokuphulwa kwesivumelwano, ukulimala kwempahla, noma ukunganaki. i-Statert isho izenzo, njenge-Federal Tort Deties Act, ivumela abantu ukuba bafake izinhlangano zikahulumeni ezingaphansi kwezimfuneko ezisekelwe ekwakhelini nasemonakalweni. Abameli bezokuphendulela inguquko enkulu kakhulu yezwe ingathola ukuthi inguquko engcono kakhulu kunoshintsho lwezwe, ikakhulukazi ngemithetho eqhubekayo noma ngenqubo yesakhamuzi eqhubekayo.

Ukuhlobana Nokucabangela Uhulumeni

Impikiswano ngokuzivikela kombuso ekugcineni iyimpikiswano ngohlobo lobuzwe. Abavikeli besimiso sokuvikela uhulumeni baphikisa ngokuthi kumelwe balondoloze inkululeko ekuphathweni njalo ukuze basebenze ngokuphumelela njengezikhulu ezihlukene. Ukuvumela zonke izinqumo kungaqeda ukuphatha kwezwe futhi kumemele izinkantolo zikahulumeni ukuba zihlele imali yezindawo ezincane. Ngaphezu kwalokho, imfundiso ye-comoty ikhuthaza izinkantolo zikahulumeni ukuxoxa ngezindaba zomthetho-mthetho emqoka. Abagxeki, ngakolunye uhlangothi, bagomela ukuthi ubukhosi abusona imvume yokuphula amalungelo ayisisekelo. Ukwephula imibandela okunelisayo, ukugobeka impikiswano engcono.

Indlela elinganiselwe iyaqaphela: (1) izifundazwe azinamalungelo angaphezulu komthetho − i-Supremacy Claus isebenza kuzo njengoba kunjalo kuhulumeni wombuso; (2) ukukhokhwa kwemali ebekwe imibuso kungavimbela ukuziphatha okubi futhi kudlulise izindleko zokwephula umthetho phakathi kwesisekelo somkhokhi wentela; futhi (3) i-jaji likahulumeni linelungelo elihle lokuchaza nokuphoqelela amalungelo omthetho-mthetho. Ngesikhathi esifanayo, imithetho ecophelelayo ilinganisela ukutholakala kwenani lemiphumela, ilondoloza isithunzi sombuso ngezipho zesaziso, futhi ukudlulisa izikhalo ezincane ezinkantolo zikahulumeni ezinganciphisa amathuba aphazamisayo okuvunyelwa kwesheshiwezwe.

Isiphetho

Imithetho yokuvikela uhulumeni nokuziphendulela komphakathi akudingeki ukuba ivumelane. Isimiso somthetho siye sakha izinqubo eziningi ezilawulayo . ````I-FLT'','imithetho ehlukanisayo','imithetho ye-Ex Young', futhi i-state ivumela ukulandisa ngecala ngenkathi ihlonipha indima eyisisekelo yezwe esimisweni sethu sombuso. Noma kunjalo, ukulinganisela kwamanje kuncike kakhulu ekuvikelekeni emongweni emongweni eminingi, kushiya izakhamuzi zingenawo amakhambiza asebenzayo ekwaphulweni umthetho-mthetho-mthetho-mthetho wombuso wazo. Kungakhathaliseki ukuthi isizwe sihamba sibhekene nenguquko ngomthetho kahulumeni, ukulawulwa kwezwe, noma ukulawulwa komthetho, isimiso sokuqondisa, isimiso okumelwe sibe ukuthi asikhiphe isijeziso. I-Repablication ingafuna ukuthembeka kwabantu bayo kuphela lapho inikeza inkantolo enkantolo elungile.

Ukuze ufunde ngokwengeziwe, hlola [[FLT: 0] i-Cornell Information Institute yokwaziswa kweSichibiyelo seshumi nanye , umbiko weNkonzo yokucwaninga ye-Congregational Serval umbiko we- we-Mosal Immuniny ne-FLTP , kanye nemibono ephawulayo enjenge [[FLT:][FLT][FLT]][FLT]][FLT].[FLT][FLT:][5][5][5][5][5]