Isizinda Senqubo Ezokwenzeka Ngokomlando

Isimiso senqubo efanele sisekelwe kakhulu esikweni lomthetho lamaNgisi namaMelika, silandelela umsuka waso kuMagna Carta ka-1215. U-Claus 39 walowomthetho-mthetho wamemezela ukuthi akukho muntu okhululekile ozothunjwa, aboshwe, noma aphucwe ngaphandle kokwahlulela kontanga yakhe okungokomthetho noma umthetho wezwe. Lokhu kwakuqala kwamisa umqondo oyisisekelo wokuthi amandla kahulumeni phezu kwabantu kumelwe asetshenziswe ngokwemithetho engokomthetho emisiwe, hhayi ngokwentando yobukhosi.

Emakhulwini amaningi eminyaka, umthetho ovamile waseNgilandi wacwenga lezisivikelo nge-habeas corpus, ilungelo lokuqulwa kwecala labahluleli, kanye nokwenqatshelwa kokuzimela. Lapho amaFramens emisa uMthetho-sisekelo wase-United States, afaka inqubo efanelekile eSigwegwegweni sesihlanu, egunyazwe ngo-1791, enikeza ukuba kungabikho muntu owenziwe "ophulwe ukuphila, inkululeko, noma impahla, ngaphandle kwenqubo efanelekile yomthetho." Lokhu ekuqaleni kwasebenza kuhulumeni wezwe. Ngemva kweMpi Yombango, iSiphendulo se-148, i-Rendementation, yagunyazwe ngo-1868, yandisa imfuneko efanayo kuhulumeni, yenza inqubo efanelekile yomthetho wemithetho yaseMelika.

Incazelo yenqubo efanele iye yavela ngokuphawulekayo ngencazelo yokwahlulela. Ekuqaleni, izinkantolo zagxila ekuqondeni okulungile okungokomthetho — ziqinisekisa ukuthi abantu bathola isaziso futhi baqulwe phambi kwesenzo sikahulumeni. Ngokuhamba kwesikhathi, iNkantolo Ephakeme yaqaphela futhi ukuncishiswa kwendlela, ivikela amalungelo athile ayisisekelo ekungeneleni uhulumeni kungakhathaliseki ukuthi kusetshenziswa izinqubo. Lendlela ehlukene iyaqhubeka ithuthukisa izimpikiswano zomthetho namuhla.

Izinhlobo Zenqubo Efanele

Inqubo ejwayelekile

Inqubo efanelekile iyabuza: Yiziphi izinqubo uhulumeni okumelwe azilandele ngaphambi kokuba aphuce umuntu ukuphila, inkululeko, noma impahla? Okuncane kakhulu? UMthetho-sisekelo udinga isaziso nethuba lokuzwakala. Kodwa izimfuneko eziqondile ziyahluka kuye ngomongo we-mongo. INkantolo Ephakeme [ku- Maws v. I-Eldridge [ [779] isho ukuvivinywa okulinganiselwe okuthwebula izici ezintathu: inzuzo yomuntu siqu ethintekile, izingozi zokuncishwa kwezimiso ezikhona, nesithakazelo sikahulumeni (kuhlanganise i-fiscal nemithwalo yokuphatha). Lokhu okuguquguqukayo kusho ukuthi ukuqulwa kwecala kungadingeka ngenxa yobugebengu, kuyilapho ukuzwa okunganele ngokwenzuzo engcono.

Inqubo efanelekile engokomthetho iyasebenza ezimisweni eziningi: ukuqulwa kwecala (ilungelo lokunikeza iseluleko, ukuphikisana kofakazi, abahluleli abangakhethi), ukuqulwa kwecala lokuphatha (izinzuzo zenhlala- kahle, ukunqanyulwa kwemisebenzi yezisebenzi zomphakathi, nokukhishwa kwemisebenzi yabafundi ezikoleni zomphakathi. Imfuneko eyisisekelo ukuthi uhulumeni wenze ngendlela elungile futhi unikeze ithuba elinengqondo lokuba umuntu ancintisane nalesisenzo.

Inqubo Engeyona Inkinga

Inqubo edingayo engabonakali iyabuza: Akhona yini amalungelo athile abaluleke kakhulu kangangokuba uhulumeni akanakuwaphazamisa, ngisho nangezinqubo eziphelele? Lemfundiso iye yaphikiswana kodwa ihlala ibalulekile. Griswold v. Connecticut[ (1965]), iNkantolo Ephakeme yaqaphela ilungelo lokuvimbela ukuvimbela ukuvimbela inzalo. Reoev. Wade [ [1903]) yasebenzisa lokhu kucabanga ngokukhishwa kwesisu, [[FLT:] futhi [FLT:] "65] i-Obergefell. [FLD:5] [0] [0] [ivolt:] [20]

Inqubo efanelekile engabonakali ivikela inkululeko engasekelwe ekujuleni komlando wezwe nesiko. INkantolo isebenzisa indinganiso eqinile yemithetho ethwesa umthwalo amalungelo ayisisekelo, ifuna uhulumeni abonise isithakazelo esiphoqeleleyo nokwenza uthango oluncane. Nokho, le mfundiso ayilinganiselwe; iNkantolo iyenqaba ukuwaqaphela kalula amalungelo amasha. Shathington v. Glucksberg [1997], yalahla ilungelo lokusiza ukuzibulala, igcizelela ukuthi ukukhululwa kumelwe kuqondiswe ngencazelo eqondile yelungelo lokulunga.

Abagxeki baphikisa ngokuthi inqubo efanelekile edingayo ivumela amajaji ukuba aphoqelele izinqumo zawo. Abalweli baphikisa ukuthi kubalulekile ukuvikela inkululeko yomuntu ngamunye ekuphathweni kwemithetho. Ukungezwani phakathi kokunqatshelwa komthetho womthetho nezimiso zamalungelo kuyaqhubeka kuchaza izimpikiswano zomthetho - sisekelo zanamuhla.

Uphawu Lwecala Lenkantolo Ephakeme Luyehlisa Inqubo Efanele

[[UMTH:0] Miranda v. Arizona[ (1966)

Mira, iNkantolo Ephakeme yathi ilungelo lesiGqibelo sesihlanu ngokumelene nokuziphindisela lidinga ukuba amaphoyisa azise abasolwayo ngamalungelo abo ukuba ahlale athule futhi abe nommeli okhona phakathi nokuphenywa kwesigwebo semvume. Umphumela [i-Morda] i-Moza iyingxenye ejwayelekile ye-Politiki yaseMelika. Lendaba iqinisekisa ukuthi abantu ababoshwe ngelungelo lokugcinwa kwamaphoyisa bayazi isivikelo somthetho-mthetho-sisekelo ngaphambi kokuba baphenywe. Ngaphandle kwesixwayiso esinjalo, noma iziphi izixwayiso ezitholakalayo ziyingxenye evamile ye-politiki enkantolo.

Goldberg v.Kelly (1970)

Lelicala lakhuluma ngenqubo efanelekile emongweni wezinzuzo zezenhlalakahle. INkantolo yanquma ukuthi uma umbuso ufuna ukuqeda izinzuzo zomamukeli, kumelwe unikeze ukuzwa okusobala esikhathini sangaphambi kokuvela, kuhlanganise nelungelo lokunikeza ubufakazi futhi ubhekane nofakazi abangemthetho. Goldberg [ inqubo efanelekile yokuvikela esifundazweni sokuphatha, iqaphela ukuthi uhulumeni ungenza isimo sempahla. Isinqumo sakhuthaza ukuqhubekela phambili ezinhlanganweni zezokuqondisa izinhlangano ezisukela ekulondekeni komphakathi ukuya ezindlini zomphakathi.

[[UMTL:0] Roe v. Wade[[Umthetho:1] (1973)

Nakuba kamuva yabuswa kakhulu amaDobbs v. Jackson Women’s Health Organization [202], Roe wayengumsebenzi ophawulayo wenqubo efaneleyo. INkantolo yathola ukuthi ilungelo lokufihla imfihlo, eliphelele kwi-Century Procession Claus, lihlanganisa isinqumo sowesifazane sokuqeda ukukhulelwa. Nakuba kwakunempikiswano enkulu, [[FLT:] Roe yabonisa indlela inqubo efanelekile engavikela ngayo ukuvinjelwa komuntu siqu esimweni sokuphazamisa. Indaba ihlala iphakathi yokuphikisana ngelungelo elingahlanganiwe.

[[UMTL:0] Amathews v. Eldridge[[FL:1] (1976]

Lelicala lasungula uhlelo lwanamuhla lokunquma ukuthi iyiphi inqubo efanele. INkantolo yaphetha ngokuthi inqubo efanele ivumelana nenqubo futhi idinga ukulinganisela isithakazelo somuntu siqu, ingozi yephutha, nesithakazelo sikahulumeni. Amathews[, iNkantolo yanquma ukuthi izinzuzo zokukhubazeka kwezeNtlalo zingaqedwa ngaphandle kokuzwa kwangaphambi kwesikhathi, isikhathi eside kakhulu uma izinqubo zangemva kwenkathi zifanelekile. Lendinganiso iyaqhubeka isebenza ngaphesheya komongo zezomthetho.

Obergefell v. Hodges (2015)

Ku obergefell, iNkantolo Ephakeme yasekela ukuthi iSichibiyelo seSikhawulo se 14 seNkathi ka-Claus siqinisekisa ilungelo lomshado ofanayo. INkantolo yacabanga ukuthi umshado uyilungelo eliyisisekelo, futhi yaphika imibhangqwana efanayo engowesilisayo ukuba iphuce inkululeko ngaphandle kwenqubo efanele. Isinqumo saqinisekisa ukuthi inqubo efanelekile engaphansi kwe-CPrometerssion's Processiary Clausle, kuhlanganise nokukhetha ukuthi ubani ozoshada, njengengxenye yendwangu yomthetho-mthetho-sisekelo.

Inqubo Efaneleyo Emfundweni

Izikole zomphakathi kumelwe zihloniphe amalungelo afanele abafundi lapho zinikeza izijeziso ezigunyaza ukujeziswa. Gos v. Lopez [1975], iNkantolo Ephakeme yasekela ukuthi abafundi babhekene nokukhishwa kwecala kwezinsuku eziyishumi noma ngaphansi banelungelo lokuqaphela amacala nethuba lokuzwiwa — okungenani ingxoxo yethukela nezikhulu zesikole. Ukuxoshwa noma ukuxoshwa, izinqubo eziningi ezingokomthetho kungadingeka, kuhlanganise nelungelo lokubiza ofakazi, kanye nokufakaza okungathandeki.

Lezi sivikelo ziyasebenza ezikoleni zomphakathi ngoba imithetho ephoqelelwe yokuba khona inikeza abafundi isithakazelo sempahla emfundweni yabo. Izikhulu zesikole kumelwe zilinganisele isidingo sesiyalo esihlelekile ngokulunga komthetho-sisekelo. Izimfuneko ezivamile zihlanganisa:

  • Notice: Umfundi kumelwe atshelwe ngokuziphatha okubi okushiwoyo kanye nemiphumela engavela.
  • [ Umfundi kumelwe abe nethuba elibalulekile lokuveza uhlangothi lwakhe phambi komenzi wesinqumo ongakhethi.
  • Isinqumo kufanele sisekelwe kobunye ubufakazi, hhayi ngokuzinqumela noma ngokuguquguquka.
  • [[I-FLT:0]Appal:[ Izifunda eziningi zinikeza inqubo yezinqumo ezikhangayo zokuyala.

Inqubo elindelekile iyasebenza nakwezinye izenzo zesikole, njengokuphikisana, izinqumo ezikhethekile zemfundo, nokufuna nokuphanga nokuthatheka kwezikhulu zesikole. ISichibiyelo sesine esinqabela ukuphenya okungacabangeki siphoqelelwa ezikoleni ngaphansi kwendinganiso yokusola okunengqondo, hhayi imbangela, ebonisa izidingo ezikhethekile zesikole. Noma kunjalo, abafundi abawadeli wonke amalungelo omthetho-mthetho esangweni lesikole.

Inqubo Efanele Enkathini Yezinombolo

Ubuchwepheshe banamuhla buphakamisa imibuzo emisha edinga ukumiswa. Uma uhulumeni eqhuba ukuqapha ngemishini yemishini. Uma ethatha izingcingo zocingo, noma esebenzisa i-algoriths ukwenza izinqumo ngokuphathelene nezinzuzo, iyiphi inqubo ebolekwayo? INkantolo Ephakeme iphethe ukuthi ukuhlola isenzakalo socingo oluphathwayo ngokuvamile kudinga imvume, ukuqaphela inani elikhulu lemininingwane yomuntu siqu lemishini equkethe. I-Cardent v. United [FLT:] [208], iNkantolo yeNkantolo inqume ukuthi ukutholakala kwemininingwane ye-cell-ot projectal ishonds yeze projectives yezethi kahulumeni ifaka kanjani inselele izicelo ze-makethi kagesi.

Ngokufanayo, izimiso zokwenza izinqumo ezizisebenzelayo ezisetshenziswa yizinhlangano zikahulumeni — ngokwesibonelo, ukunquma ukuthi inzuzo yokungasebenzi ilungile noma ukubikezela ukufakelwa komthetho osemthethweni ekugwetshweni kobugebengu — kumelwe zinikeze isivikelo esanele se-procedalture. Uma uhlelo lwe-algorith lunikeza amafulegi angewona umuntu ongakho, angasibekela inselele isinqumo? Ingabe inqubo efanelekile idinga ukuba kucace ukuthi i-algorithm isebenza kanjani? Lemibuzo isemngceleni womthetho-mthetho-mthetho-mthetho-mthetho-mthetho, futhi izinkantolo eziphansi zingquzulana nazo ngaphandle kwesiqondiso esicacile seNkanto ePhakakhulu.

Izinselele Zesikhathi Esizayo

Ukuhluthulwa Kwamaningi Nokufakwa Kwemicu Eyingozi

I-United States inezinga eliphakeme kakhulu lokuboshwa phakathi kwamazwe athuthukile. Izinhlu zempi yokugqunywa ejele ngezindlela eziningi. Abavikeli bomphakathi abathwele kakhulu abanakunikeza usizo oluphumelelayo lweseluleko. I-Plea processing, exazulula amacala angu-95%, ngokuvamile icindezela abamangalelwa abangenacala ukuba bamangalelwe ukuba bagweme izinga eliphansi eliqinile eliphoqelelwe. Ilungelo lokuqulwa kwecala liqinisekisiwe, kodwa isimiso siyakuqeda ukulisebenzisa. Abagxeki baphikisa ngokuthi lokhu kululaza inqubo eyisisekelo yenqubo efanelekile ye-adversarial.

Ngaphezu kwalokho, imikhuba yebheyili — lapho abamangalelwa begcinwa khona ngaphambi kokuba baqulwe ngenxa yokuthi abakwazi ukukhokha isibopho — bajezisa abantu ngokuphumelelayo ngaphambi kokuqiniseka. United States v.Salerno[ (1987), iNkantolo Ephakeme yasekela ukuvalelwa ejele okuvinjelwayo kodwa ngaphansi kwezimo ezilinganiselwe kuphela. Noma kunjalo, amazwe amaningi ayaqhubeka ukuvimbela abantu abaphansi ngenxa yobumpofu kuphela, aphakamise inqubo efanelekile yokuzikhathaza.

Umehluko Okhona Ngokobuhlanga

Ukwahlukana kwezinhlanga kugcwele esimisweni sokwahlulela sobugebengu. Ukuhlola kubonisa ukuthi abantu abamnyama nabawashins basengozini enkulu yokuboshwa, babekwe icala elingathi sína, futhi bagwetshwe amagama amade kunabelungu ngenxa yokuziphatha okufanayo. Lokhu kwahluka kungabangelwa yi-protop, ukuqashelwa, ukugweba iziqondiso, nokucwasa okungaphelele. Nakuba i-Ecumeal Protection Claus eyithuluzi eliyinhloko lomthetho-sisekelo lokubekela inselele ubandlululo lobuhlanga, inqubo efanele ifeza indima. Ngokwesibonelo, Bhatson v., iNkantolo ye-CURCUM], ikholelwa ukuthi ukucwaswa kohlanga ekukhethweni kwejala inkantolo i-jaji evunayo i-jaji efanelekile nesivikelo.

Ubuhlanga bezimiso bungabonakala futhi ezinqubweni ngokwazo. Ngokwesibonelo, imithetho emithathu ephoqelela izigwebo zokuphila kwezigebezi ezingenabudlova ingabekelwa inselele njengokwephula inqubo efanelekile uma zingenakulinganiswa. Nokho, ukubukezwa kweNkantolo ngaphansi kweSigqizo seSigqi (esihlanganisa izimiso ezifanele zenqubo) kulinganiselwe. Ukukhuluma ngokuhlukana kwezinhlanga kudinga izinguquko ekubanjweni kwemithetho, ukushushiswa, ukugwetshwa, nelungiselelo leseluleko.

Inqubo Yokuthuthwa Nokufaneleka Kwabantu

Imicimbi yokudingiswa iwumthetho, hhayi ubugebengu, kodwa ingaphumela ekudingisweni — ukuncishwa okukhulu kwenkululeko. INkantolo Ephakeme iye yathi abantu abangamele banelungelo lokukhipha inqubo efunekayo ekususweni kwenqubo. Padilla v. Kentucky[[FL:1] [2010] [2010], iNkantolo yanquma ukuthi abameli bezemthetho kumelwe batshele abathengi abangaboleki ngemiphumela yokungena ezweni yesicelo esinecala. Noma kunjalo, inqubo efanelekile enkantolo yezethubeni ngokuvamile ibuthakathaka kunenkantolo yobugebengu: akukho lungelo omisiwe wokunikezwa iziluleko olungebonakele, nesilinganiso sobufakazi obufanele "iexlexplan" kunokuba ukungabaza "uthakaze"

Ukuvalelwa ejele lokuthunga kuphakamisa futhi izimpikiswano ezifanele zenqubo. Njengoba ukuvalelwa kungokomphakathi, kungahlala njalo kwezinye izimo, nakuba iNkantolo [ku- uZadvydas v. Davis (2001) yamisa isilinganiso sezinyanga eziyisithupha sokuvalelwa okuhlobene nokususwa. Imvume ezinkantolo zokuvalela abantu kwenye indawo, ilinganisela amakhulu ezinkulungwane zamacala asele, isho abantu abaningi balindele ukuqulwa iminyaka eminingi — ukulibala ngokwako okungase kulahle inqubo efanele uma kuveza izabazo ezinikeza ubufakazi.

Ukubulawa Kwabantu Abahlala Emakamu

Ukusingatha izinsolo zokuhlasela ngokobulili emakolishi sekuyinqubo edinga impoqo yempi. Iziqondiso zeFederal ngaphansi kwesihloko VI ne-Title IX zifuna izikole zihlole futhi zixazulule izikhalo ngokushesha. Kodwa inqubo engakanani eboshelwe abafundi abamangalelwayo? Izinkantolo ziye zahlukana. Abanye badinga ukuqulwa kwamacala okuphila ngokuhlola okuphambanayo; abanye bavumela umhloli oyedwa. UMnyango wezemfundo ka-20X umyaleze uphile ukuzwa nokuncitshiswa kwemithetho edluliswa yizikhulu ze-Bden.

Doe v. University of Pennsylvania (2021]), iSifunda sesithathu sathi iyunivesithi yomphakathi kumelwe inikeze abafundi abamangalelwe isaziso samacala, ubufakazi, nethuba elinenjongo lokuphendula. INkantolo Ephakeme ayikazisoli izimfuneko eziqondile ezifanele ezisezikhungweni zesikole, kodwa ukuthambekela kusekufuneni izinqubo ezengeziwe ezingokomthetho lapho izigxobo zisuswa — njengokuxoshwa noma ukubhaliswa kohluzo oluhlala njalo — kuphakeme.

Isiphetho

Inqubo efanelekile ihlala iyisivikelo esinamandla nebalulekile ekuthatheni izenzo zikahulumeni ozimele. Kusukela ekuqaleni kwayo eMagna Carta kuya ekusebenziseni kwayo kwanamuhla ukuqapha, ukufuduka, nokuyalwa kwesikole, lesi simiso sidinga ukuba uhulumeni aphathe abantu ngokungakhethi, ngokusobala, futhi ahloniphe amalungelo ayisisekelo. Njengoba umphakathi ushintsha, izinselele ezintsha zizoqhubeka zivivinya imingcele yaleyo nqubo elindelekile. Abafundi nothisha kumelwe baqonde ukuthi inqubo efanelekile ayisona iseshiwo semithetho ehleliwe kodwa isithembiso esiphilayo — esifuna ukuqapha, ukuguqula, nokuzinikela ekulungeni kubo bonke.

Ukuze ufunde ngokwengeziwe, bheka i-Constitution Acconomement enhlelweni efanelekile, [[FLT:]] i-Cornell Information Institute , kanye neproject [[[FLT:]Oyez][ yecala locaciso] lokufushanisa nempikiswano.