Isimo Esinzima Esihlala Njalo: Amandla Asempilweni Aphikisana Nobukhosi BukaHulumeni EMelika

Isimiso sezombangazwe se-Melika sakhiwe ngokulinganisela okuklanywe ngokucophelela phakathi kukahulumeni wezwe nohulumeni bezwe abangu-50. Lokhu akuyona nje into engokomlando kodwa kuyinto ephilayo, ilungiselelo elixoxwe njalo elibumba yonke into kusukela ejubaneni lomgwaqo omkhulu wendawo kuya ekuqikelweni kwemithetho yendawo engaphandle kwezwe. Ukuqonda lokhu kulinganisela kwegunya kubalulekile ekuqondeni indlela enziwa ngayo imithetho, indlela ephikiswa ngayo, nendlela amandla asetshenziswa ngayo eUnited States. Isakhiwo, esisekelwe kuMthetho-Constitution, sihloselwe ukuvimbela ukufukuza ngomthetho, kodwa intambo eqondile phakathi kwegunya likahulumeni nombuso ibilokhu iwumthombo wempikiswano kusukela ekusungulweni kwesizwe.

Isisekelo Somlando Nesefilosofi

Umzabalazo wokuthi uhulumeni wezwe kufanele ubambe uMthetho-sisekelo ngaphambi konyaka. Izihloko ze-Confederation, ibhukwana lokuqala elibusayo lesizwe, zakha uhulumeni obuthakathaka ophakathi ongenakukhokha intela, ulawule ezentengiselwano, noma ulondoloze ibutho elimile ngokuphumelelayo. Lokhu kuzama cishe ubukhosi obuphelele bezwe kwabonakala kungenakusebenza, okwaholela eMhlanganweni we-Philadelphia wango1787. Abakhi bomthetho, kuhlanganise noJames Madison noAlexander Hamilton, baklama isimiso esasiyisisekelo esiphakathi: uhulumeni wezwe wezwe, imibuso elinganiselwe, neminye imibuso egcinelwe imibuso noma abantu.

Amaphephandaba Amaqembu Amakhulu Awuchungechunge

Ukulunga kokuhlakanipha kwalokhu kuhlukana kwamandla kubekwe kumaphesenti ahlala njalo. Lokhu kwakuhloselwe ukuqinisekisa abalweli bempi, abawesabayo igunya lesizwe elikude, imvume kahulumeni ekhona. 45 no-4. 46. Madison waphikisa ngokuthi amagunya kahulumeni kahulumeni kahulumeni kahulumeni ayakuba "ngangowodwa futhi achazwe," nakuba lawo amazwe ayakuba "ngalingani naphakade" uma kuqhathaniswa nekhemikhali, ikhekhekhe elikhulu lekhulu lekhulu lekhulu le-19.

ISichibiyelo Seshumi Namandla Okulondoloza Iziqiwi

Isimiso sobukhosi buhulumeni sivikelwe ngokucace Isichibiyeli seTenth:

“ Imibuso engaphathiswa iUnited States uMthetho - sisekelo, noma enqatshelwe yiwo e - United States, igcinelwa i - United States ngokulandelana, noma abantu.”

Lokhu kulungisa akusona isiqinisekiso sokunikeza amandla ezifundazweni; kuwumthetho wokwakha. Kucacisa ukuthi noma yimuphi amandla anganikezwanga ngokuqondile kuhulumeni kahulumeni, futhi angaphikwanga ezifundazweni, ahlala namazwe. Lokhu kuye kwaba isisekelo somthetho-sisekelo segunya likahulumeni phezu kwemfundo, ukugcinwa komthetho wendawo, umthetho wempahla, nempilo yomphakathi, phakathi kwezinye izindawo.

Ukwakhiwa Komthetho - sisekelo Kwababusi Abazimele NoMbuso

Umthetho-sisekelo usebenzisa izigaba ezintathu eziyinhloko ukuze kunikezwe igunya: elibaliwe, elihlanganyelweyo, neligciniwe. Ukuqonda lezizigaba kuyisihluthulelo sokuhlaziya noma yiziphi izimpi zikahulumeni.

Basebenzisa Amandla Akhona, Basebenzisa Izindlela Zawo Zonke

  • Amandla anezinombolo (noma aphathisiwe): Lawa ahlelwe ngokucacile eqephini I, Ingxenye 8 yoMthetho-sisekelo. Ahlanganisa amandla okukhokha imali, ukumemezela impi, ukulawula isifundazwe nesentengiselwano yangaphandle, nokumisa iposi. Lena imisebenzi eyinhloko kahulumeni wezwe.
  • Amandla asetshenziswayo: Ithathwe ku- UNesary noMonant Claus [ (Isibonelo, Ingxenye 8, Claus 18), uMkhandlu unamandla okwenza yonke imithetho "eyimfuneko nefanele" yokwenza amandla awo akhona. Lombhalo onwebekayo ube isisekelo sokwanda okukhulu kwezwe, kusukela ekumiseni ibhange lesizwe ukuze iqondise cishe zonke izingxenye zezomnotho.
  • Amandla akhona: lawa amagunya ahlanganyelwa yibo bobabili ohulumeni bakahulumeni nohulumeni. Izibonelo eziyinhloko zihlanganisa amandla entela, ukuboleka imali, ukumisa izinkantolo, nokuphoqelela imithetho. Uma amandla akhona akhona ngesikhathi esifanayo, ukuphakama kukahulumeni kungadlalwa uma kunempi eqondile.
  • Ifuna ama-powers:[ Yonke imibuso engaphathiswanga i-United States noma enqatshelwe ezindaweni igcinelwe izifundazwe. Lokhu kuhlanganisa imithetho yezentengiselwano zezwe, ukuqhuba okhetho, ukumisa ohulumeni bendawo, nokulungisa izikole zomphakathi.

UClaus Onedumela Elibi Nokukhululwa

I- Umthetho ka Claus (i-Article VI, Claus 2) iyindlela ebucayi yokuxazulula izingxabano phakathi komthetho kahulumeni nombuso.

“ Lomthetho-sisekelo, neMiyalo yase-United States eyokwenziwa ePoweni yawo; futhi zonke iziThibe zokwenziwa, noma ezizokwenziwa, ngaphansi kweGunya le-United States, kuyoba uMthetho ophakeme weZwe; futhi abaHluleli kuwo wonke uMbuso bayoboshelwa kanjalo, noma isiphi iSivumelwano soMthetho noma uMthetho wanoma yimuphi Umbuso kunoma isiphi iSizwe kuHlomelo ngokuphambene.”

Uma umthetho wezwe uphikisana ngokuqondile nomthetho kahulumeni osemthethweni, umthetho kahulumeni ukhona. Lokhu kwaziwa ngokuthi intethelelo. Intethelelo ingaboniswa (ISikhululo sisho ukuthi iwumthetho wezwe owenqabayo) noma isho ukuthi (umthetho wecala ubanzi ugcwele kakhulu kangangokuba awushiyi thuba lomthetho wezwe, noma ngeke ikwazi ukuba inxenye ivumelane nayo yomibili imithetho). Imfundiso ibilokhu isemgangathweni ezindaweni ezinjengezokufuduka, umthetho wendawo ezungezile, nomkhiqizo womthengi, lapho izindinganiso zesizwe zivame ukungqubuzana nokuhlolwa kwezwe.

Ukushintsha Kwesimo Sobuzwe Phakathi Nesikhathi

Izenzakalo ezinkulu ezingokomlando nesinqumo seNkantolo Ephakeme kuye kwalishintsha ngokuphawulekayo igunya likahulumeni.

Ukusuka Ekuhlanganeni Kuya Ekuhlanganeni Kwenhlangano

I-New Deal ye-1930 yayiwukushintshwa kokuzamazama komhlaba. INkantolo Ephakeme yaqale yawisa izinhlelo eziningi zeNew Deal njengegunya elidlula ikhoshane lombuso ngaphansi kwe-Choode Claus, kodwa ngemva "lokubhuka ngesikhathi esasindisa isishiyagalolunye," iNkantolo yaqala ukuthobela ukufundwa kwemisuka kaKhongolo. Lokhu kwavula umnyango wokwanda okukhulu kwamandla kahulumeni. I-"layer" ye-coacestyismisms," ngokuvamile yachazwa ngokuthi "iqended conity," lapho uhulumeni, lapho uhulumeni, uhulumeni, khona, nohulumeni bendawo behlanganisa khona izikhawu eziyinkimbinkimbi.

INhlangano Enkulu Nokukhula KobuFederalism

Izinhlelo ze Great Society zonyaka ka-1960 zandisa lomkhuba ngokulandelana kwe- kwe-constitul. Uhulumeni wamazwe waqala ukunikela ngezimali ezigodli eziswa ezindaweni, nezintambo ezinamaqoqo. Amazwe ayezothola imali exhasa imfundo, imigwaqo emikhulu, noma ukunakekelwa kwezempilo ngenxa yokusebenzisa izindinganiso zikahulumeni. Lokhu kwavumela uhulumeni wesizwe ukuba usebenzise ithonya elikhulu ezindaweni ezaziyizindawo zikahulumeni, njengemfundo nemithetho. Ngokwesibonelo, ukuphuza okuncane kwesizwe okuseminyakeni engu-21 kwakubekwe ngokuphumelelayo kuzo zonke izindawo ngokubopha izimali zemali ngomgwaqo omkhulu ukuze ugunyazwe.

IRehnquist Court Nokuziphendukela Kwemvelo

Ngo-1990 nasekuqaleni konyaka ka-1900, iNkantolo Ephakeme ngaphansi kukaMahluleli Omkhulu uWilliam Rehnquist yazama ukubuyisela amandla kahulumeni. Uchungechunge lwezinqumo (umz., iUnited States uUnited States v.Lopez, Printzz v. United States[FOLT:3]) yabeka imingcele emisha emandleni eKhomishani kahulumeni [Classillace Clause] nombuso owesizwe owesishaya umthetho wezwe noma izinqubo zesikhulu. Lo " `New Federalism" yabona iNkathi yeNkathi yeSikole senkululeko se-Gun-URCal Act ne-Ulmose Acts Againsts ofmen Actsmentmentmentmentment. Nokho, kamuva, iNkadelela lendlela eshiya amandla engekho ngokungaqinisekile.

Ukugxila Ekujuleni Kwamandla Ayinhloko Nezingxabano

Izindaba Zokuzivikela Zezwe Nezakwamanye Amazwe

Uhulumeni kahulumeni unamandla ombuso phezu kwesivikelo sombuso. Izwe alinakungena ezivumelwaneni, limemezele impi, noma lilondoloze amabutho amile. Nokho, izigungu zifeza indima ethile ngemikhosi yazo ye-National Guard, engagunyaziswa ukuba i-operations. Izingxabano ziphakama lapho uhulumeni kahulumeni ufuna ukusebenzisa izimali zikahulumeni zokugcinwa komthetho kahulumeni wokuthunyelwa kwabantu, njengoba zibonwa ezimpini ezingokomthetho ku "idolobha lase-Sanctuniary" izinqubo. Impikiswano iwukuthi uhulumeni ungayiphoqa izikhulu zikahulumeni ukuba ziqondise umthetho wezwe wokuthutha abantu (iNkantolo yathi akukho mthetho kazwelo-] e-Pretz. ]).

Ezentengiselwano Zesifundazwe Nesimiso Sezomnotho

INkantolo ichaza (Ingxenye I, iSiqesha 8, u-Classia 3) iwumthombo onamandla kakhulu wegunya likahulumeni, osetshenziselwa ukulawula yonke into kusukela kumazinga kajantshi kuya ezingeni lezisebenzi kuya ku-Internet. Eziningi zekhulu lama-20 leminyaka, iNkantolo yayichaza ngokuqedile ukuyivumela ukuba ivumela noma isiphi isenzo nge "impumelelo yemiphumela" kwezentengiselwano zamazwe. Lokhu kuvumela ukuhlelwa kukakolweni womlimi ukuze asebenzisele ngokwakhe ([[FLT:]]]Wrickard v. Filkt:3]) futhi imfuneko yokuthenga umshuwayela wempilo ([FLT][FLT].[5][5][FFFFF]][ELY] [5]]).[5] Intengo yezentengiselwa kwezentengo yezentengo, isho ephakathi kwenye isho engokomthetho.

Amalungelo Omphakathi Nokuphanga

v. ibhodi lemfundo (1954) isalokhu iyisibonelo esiyinhloko somthetho kahulumeni olawula amalungelo kahulumeni ombuso ukuze uvikele amalungelo ayisisekelo. INkantolo yathi ukuhlukaniswa kwesizwe ezikoleni zomphakathi kwaphula umthetho weSimemezelo seSimemezelo sika-144 seSiviko sika-Celal Clausede. Lesi sinqumo sabangela ukumelana okukhulu kwamanye amazwe aseningizimu, okuholela ekungeneleni okwengeziwe kwemithetho ye-Oviniyo yamaLungelo ka-19649 kanye nemithetho ye-Vogation Act ka-1959. Namuhla, isho ukuthi iphakathi kwesikhungo semibangezo macala okukhetha amalungelo okuvota. Imithetho ephathelene yokuvota kwasekuqaleni, ukuvota, nokubomvu. Ngokuyinhloko, uhulumeni wezwe, uhulumeni, ufaka inselele imibandela eMnyango nezinkantolo, uma ingekho isisekelo sohlanga noma i-'inqulution.[3] Isinqumo esigunya elingaphezulu seNkakhulu seNkakhulu semithetho: [Fog.]

Isimiso Sokunakekelwa Kwempilo

Impilo iwumugqa oyiphutha elikhulu. Act e-Affordble Care Care (ACA) ka-2010] ngo-2010 yakha uhlelo olukhulu lwe-mushuwalense wempilo, kodwa yathembela kakhulu ekubambisana nohulumeni. Umthetho owenzelwe ukwandisa iMedicaid, uhlelo lwe-mishuwalense yempilo yezwe elihlangene ehlangeneyo ye-Medicaid yezempilo yabantu abaphansi abaphansi. NFIB v. Sebelius[FLT], iNQUR, iN, yanquma ukuthi uhulumeni wezwe ngeke usongele ukuvimbela zonke izimali ezikhona ezisezikhungweni ezikhona ezisezweni ezenqabela ukwakhiwa. Lokhu kunikeza ukukhetha okungcono ekukhulisweni kwesimiso somsebenzi, ukuhlanganisa, izikhathi zeze, izikhampathi zezeli, izikhampathi zezenkani zezeli, izikhampathi zezenkani yezenkani yezenkani yezeli, intensi yeze yeze yezokwelapha, inte

Ukuqashelwa Ngokomthetho: Impi Ephilayo

Mhlawumbe impi ebonakala kakhulu yamanje ibangelwa insangu. Kusukela ngawo-1970, umthetho kahulumeni uye wahlukanisa insangu njengento esetshenziswayo, eyenza ukuba ikhiqizwe, isakazwe, futhi ibe yingekho emthethweni. Kodwa ngo-2023, amazwe angaphezu kuka-20 aye agunyaza insangu ngokusebenzisa inzuzo yokuzijabulisa, futhi amaningi avumela ukusetshenziswa kwezokwelapha. Lokhu kudala ukuxabana okuqondile. Nakuba uMnyango weJaji ngaphansi kobuphathi bamuva nje unqabe kakhulu ukumangalela ukuphatha kwemithetho kahulumeni esemthethweni lapho ukhetha ukumelana nayo, futhi ifaka ukucindezela kwemithetho yemithetho engokomthetho eyaziwa njengeCole Memory kanye nabavukeli bayo. Impikiswana ihlala ingekhona. Impikiswana yezwe ayinakusebenzisa isimiso sokubhaka imali, futhi umthetho uqobo uyaqhubeka uvimbela ukusebenza kwayo. [F.1]

Izinkinga Zamanje Zokusekela Ubuhlobo Nobuhlobo Bangaphakathi Namuhla

Ukushintsha Kwesimo Sezulu Nokushintsha Kwendawo Ezungezile

Isimiso sendawo ezungezile sincintiswana kakhulu. I-guaynvilence Protection Agency (EPA) yezwe imisa izindinganiso ngaphansi kwemithetho enjenge-Ceake Air Act. Amazwe anomthwalo wokusebenzisa eziningi zalezizindinganiso ngokuhlela ukusetshenziswa kwezinhlelo zikahulumeni. Nokho, njengaseCalifornia, anegunya elikhethekile ngaphansi kwe-Ceacal Air Act ukumisa izindinganiso eziqinile zokukhipha izimoto, amandla aye aphikiswa uhulumeni. Uma uhulumeni uhlela imithetho esendaweni ezungezile ebuyela emuva (umzz, emshinini wesitsha noma imoto), ngokuvamile isho ukuthi i-gangelukile inguquko noma iziqondiso zawo siqu eziqinile. Ngokuphikisana nomthetho, uma uhulumeni ubeka imithetho yesimo esinesibindi, usho ukuthi lemisebenzi ephawulekayo yemfucuculo ingenza ukuba kubuye isakhiwo esikhona.

Ukufuduka: Inkani Yababusi

Ukungena kuyindawo yegunya likahulumeni elicishe libe yikho kuphela, kodwa izenzo zikahulumeni nezindawo zidala izingxabano njalo. Izwe liye lamisa imithetho ehloselwe ukunqanda ukufuduka okungekho emthethweni, njengokufuna ukugcinwa komthetho wezwe nomthetho wendawo ukuze kuhlolwe ukufuduka (umz., i-SB 1070, izingxenye zayo ezashaywa yiNkantolo Ephakeme ] Arizona v.). Okwamanje, "anctuary" izifunda ezilawula ukubambisana kwazo nokugcinwa kwezindawo zomphakathi. Inkinga eyisisekelo iyizinga okungathi ingahlanganyela kulo futhi ithonya isimiso somthetho wombuso wezwe lonke. Ukushukuma kwezwe cishe kuhlale kuyimpikiswano ye-Melika.

Impilo Yomphakathi Namandla Aphuthumayo

UMqedazwe we-COVOVID-19 wafaka iziqondiso kuhulumeni wezindaba. Nakuba uhulumeni wakhona wakhipha isiqondiso futhi wanikeza izimali zokugoma nosizo lwezomnotho ( CARES Act), izifundazwe zazinecala ngokuyinhloko lokukhipha iziyalezo zokuhlala ekhaya, izikhundla zokufihla isikhumba, nemithetho evaliwe yezebhizinisi. Lokhu kwaholela ekusabelweni ngokwehlukahluka okukhulu kwezindlela zokuthola impendulo. Kwaholela futhi enkathazweni engokomthetho ngesilinganiso semithetho yesimo esiphuthumayo yezikhulu ze-jajingini ze-jaji, nokuthi iziqondiso zempilo zendawo zingawehlula yini iziqondiso zikahulumeni noma amalungelo omthetho-mthetho-mthetho. Umqeda wento esholo ukuthi i-democrali yentando yentando yezwe, kodwa kwabonisa nobunzima bokusabela kwesizwe esimweni sezwe lonke.

Ingxoxo Ehlala Njalo

Ukulinganisela kwamandla ezwe nezwe akuyona izibalo ezimisiwe. Ukulinganisela okuphilayo, ukuphefumula okubonisa izindinganiso, izidingo, kanye nezinto eziza kuqala zezombangazwe enkathini ngayinye. Kusukela ezimpikiswaneni eziphathelene nobugqila namalungelo omphakathi ezimpikiswaneni zanamuhla zempilo nendawo ezungezile, isizukulwane ngasinye kumelwe silwisane nombuzo: iliphi izinga likahulumeni elifaneleke kangcono ukusingatha impikiswano ethile? ISiphendulo seSiphendulo seSiphendu neSiphakamende uClausle yizi somthetho, kodwa amandla phakathi kwazo ayaqhubeka enziwa njalo. Abafundisi, abafundi, nezakhamuzi, ukuqonda lokhu akuyona nje indlela yemfundo yemfundo engokwezemfundo. Kukhona okuqhubekayo kwenqubo eqhubekayo yokuzilawula. [FFFom], futhi isho intebo ebanzi ye-Emperence yocwaningo.[3] [FoseS]