ISichibiyelo Sesithupha soMthetho-sisekelo we-United States siqinisekisa ilungelo lommangalelwa lokweluleka enkantolo yobugebengu. Umbhalo ulula: “Kukho konke ukumangalelwa kobugebengu, ummangalelwa ujabulela ilungelo ... ukuba neSiluleko seSiluleko sokuvikela kwakhe.” Kodwa emlandweni wesithembiso waseMelika esasebenza kuphela ezinkantolo zikahulumeni. Yathatha uchungechunge lwezinqumo zeSinkantolo esivelele sokudlulisela izigebengu [[FLT: 0] ukuhlanganisa [ukuthi] unelungelo lokumelana nezishayamthetho [ukuthi nelungelo lokumelana nezimiso ngeSiphendulo se-14th Rendexhendment. Lenqubo yokuhlanganisa inguquko yaguqula isimiso sobulungisa saseMelika, iqinisekisa ukuthi wonke umuntu obhekene nethuba lokulahlekelwa yinkululeko, kungakhathaliseki ukuthi uhulumeni abazama kulo, umendelwe yisimeli babo.

Uhambo olusuka elungelweni lombuso olusuka kuhulumeni ogcina ngokuwuqinisekisa lwelungelo lomthetho-sisekelo wesizwe lwalungasheshi futhi alunaluhlu. Kwakuhilela ushintsho oluyisisekelo endleleni iNkantolo eyayiqonda ngayo ubuhlobo phakathi kweBill of Rights nezifundazwe, futhi kwadingeka ukuba kukhulunywe ngesibindi abameli nabamangalelwa abaphikelela ngokuthi ubulungisa abunakuba buphuphutheki uma kube oyedwa emelene namandla aphelele kahulumeni. Ukuqonda ukuhlanganiswa kweSichibiyelo seSiyisithupha lungelo lokweluleka kudinga ukuphenywa kwemfundiso engokomthetho yokuhlanganiswa kwamalungelo, amacala agxekayo ayenza igwegwegwe, nemiphumela ewusizo yesimiso sokwahlulela sobugebengu namuhla.

Imfundiso Yokuqashelwa: Ukwenza Isiqinisekiso Samalungelo Esizwe

I-Bill of Rights [1] Izivumelwano zokuqala eziyishumi kumthetho-sisekelo − ekuqaleni zazihloselwe ukuvimbela uhulumeni kahulumeni kuphela. Lapho uMthetho-sisekelo ugunyazwa, izifundazwe eziningi zagcizelela imvume yamalungelo njengendlela yokuhlola igunya elisha lesizwe, kodwa zazingakubheki lokho kuvikelwa njengokubopha ohulumeni. Lombono waqinisekiswa yiNkantolo Ephakeme Barron v. Baltimore[[ [1833], eyayithi iBhibhele uVill of Rights akasebenzanga ezifundazweni.

ISichibiyelo seshumi nane, esagunyazwa ngo-1868, sashintsha isimo somthetho-sisekelo. I-Active Process Claus yamemezela ukuthi akukho mbuso “ozophakamisa noma yimuphi umuntu wokuphila, inkululeko, noma impahla, ngaphandle kwenqubo efanelekile yomthetho.” Ezehlakalweni ezilandelanayo ezaqala ekupheleni kwekhulu leshumi elinesine leminyaka, iNkantolo yaqala ukuchaza ukuthi“ okwamanje” njengokuhlanganisa amanye amalungiselelo eMikhankambini yamaLungelo. [[FLT:] [FLT:] [1] [ii]. Ukuhlola ukuthi icebo lokulunga lokulunga lokulunga lokulunga iMelika alizange lifake i-“intengqhinga ”“ ekwahlulele. INka i-Listly of Rights ” Erptionognuicet" kusetshenziswa kakhulu i-Credia.

Ilungelo lokunikeza iseluleko lalingumuntu ozosetshenziswa kakhulu. Akukho lungelo elibonakala liyisisekelo kakhulu ekuqulweni kwecala elilungile kunekhono lokuba ummeli anikeze ukuzivikela kwakhe. Kodwa amashumi amaningi eminyaka iNkantolo yamelana nomthetho oyisigubuzelo, ishiya indaba yeseluleko sikahulumeni esiqondiswe imibuso.

Ukudideka kwe-pre-Gideon: Ilungelo lokweluleka ngaphambi kokuHlakaniswa

Ngaphambi kokuba iSichibiyelo seSithandathu sifakwe, ilungelo lokululeka ezinkantolo zikahulumeni lahlukahluka kakhulu. Ezinye izifundazwe zanikeza iseluleko esimisiwe kuzo zonke iziphakamiso zecala; ezinye azizange. INkantolo Ephakeme yayiqaphele ilungelo ezinkantolo zikahulumeni Johnson v. Zerbst [1938], iphethe ukuthi iSiphendulo seSithandathu sasifuna izinkantolo zikahulumeni ukuba zimise iseluleko samacala amacala enkantolo ngaphandle kokuba abamangalelwa bahlulelwe.

INkantolo yaqala ukuxoxa ngendaba ezinkantolo zikahulumeni Powell v. Alabama (1932). Lapho, intsha engu 9 emnyama , “i-Scottsboro Boys”") yazanywa ukudlwengulwa futhi yagwetshwa eAlabama. Babengenakho ukumelelwa okusemthethweni kwaze kwaba sekuseni kokuqulwa kwecala. INkantolo Ephakeme yaziguqula izinkolelo, iphethe ukuthi ngaphansi kwe-'Inqumo yeSimemezelo se-149 Clausce, umbuso kwadingeka ukuba unikeze iseluleko enkantolo yenhloko lapho ummangalelwa ayengakwazi ukuzivikela. [[FLT:] uPowell[FLT] [FLT:]] yayiwuphawu, kodwa yayilinganiselwe: yasebenza kuphela emacaleni amacala amakhulu futhi isebenzisa kuphela ezimweni ezithile kuphela.

Eminyakeni engamashumi amathathu eyalandela, iNkantolo yazama ukuchaza ubukhulu becala. Brady [1942], iNkantolo yaphetha ngokuthi i-Curve Process Clause ayifuni ukuba kuvele kufuneke ukuba kubekwe izimemezelo zokunquma abamangalelwa emacaleni angewona alungile. Kunalokho, iNkantolo yasebenzisa “izimo ezikhethekile” ukuvivinya: ukuthi, uma kubekwa icala elingenamthetho. Le ndaba-suntswhansi yaphikisana ngokuthi ayenzeki. Inkantolo yangavumelani ukuthi “izimo ezikhethekile,” futhi abaningi abamangalelwa basebenzisa icala ngaphandle kwemimeli.

Inkathi Yokushintsha: UGideyoni noWainwright

Indaba yafika eqophelweni Gideon v. Wainwright [1963]. UClarence Earl Gideon wayempofu, ehamba kancane, enecala lokugqekeza egumbini le-prime eFlorida. Wacela inkantolo ukuba imise ummeli wakhe. Umthetho waseFlorida kuphela wanikeza iseluleko esimiswe emacaleni angokokufa, ngakho isicelo sakhe saphiwa. UGideyoni wazimela futhi walahlwa ejele futhi wagwetshwa iminyaka emihlanu.

Ejele, uGideon wafaka isicelo sokubhalisa iNkantolo Ephakeme, ephikisa ngokuthi amalungelo akhe omthetho-sisekelo ayephuliwe. INkantolo yanikeza u-certiori futhi yamisa uMahluleli wesikhathi esizayo u-Abe Fortas ukuba aphikisane necala lakhe. Umphumela waba isinqumo esihlangene sokuqulisa uBrady. UJaji uHugo Black, ubhale ukuthi iNkantolo yeNkantolo, u-[FLD] [FL:2] esimisweni sethu sokwahlulela kobugebengu, noma imuphi umuntu ohoxa enecala, ompofu kakhulu ukuba aqashe ummeli, akanakuqinisekiswa ngokuqulwa okulungile ngaphandle kokuba anikezwe iseluleko.[FLT] Inkantolo yavuma ukuthi i-Xembumbule yesi-6, i-epulkthiwelulekthiwe ye-erighty i-Grencerdey'ertivedt, ngokumangazwa ngenkantolo engokomthetho engokomthetho.[FLY]

Gedeon ivame ukuchazwa njengezinye zezinqumo zeNkantolo Ephakeme kakhulu zekhulu lamashumi amabili. Yaguqula ukuphatha kokwahlulela kobugebengu e-United States. I-United States kwadingeka ukuba isungule izimiso zomphakathi zolwelo noma ithole ezinye izindlela zokunikeza abameli abampofu. Ku-Requarion, nommeli, uGideyoni wakhululwa.

Ukwandisa Ilungelo: Ngeke Kuze Kube Yize Kube Yizinjabulo

Amaphutha Nokwehluka Kobugebengu

Ngemva .Gideon, umbuzo olandelayo wawuwukuba yini ilungelo leseluleko elisetshenziswa kuphela ezicaleni zecala elibi. Izifundazwe eziningi azikanikezi abameli abamangalelwa abangafaneleki ezicabeni ezingafanele. Argersinger v. Hamlin [772], iNkantolo Ephakeme yandisa umthetho: akekho umuntu ongase abophelwe icala, noma uhlelwe njengowodwa njengowomshosha, ongafanele, noma owesisulu, ngaphandle kokuba babemelelwe ngeseluleko sokuqulwa. Inkantolo yabonisa ukuthi umugqa phakathi kwe-felon ne-demiareader wawuyisihluthulelo. Inkantolo yayiyisihluthulelo uma isigwebo esikhona: ukuboshwa kwesigwebo esidiliziwe, ukuboshelwa kwe-6.

Kodwa iNkantolo yashiya kuvuleka lokho okwenzeka lapho ummangalelwa egwetshwa isikhathi sejele esilekiwe noma isigwebo. Alabama v. Shelton (2002], iNkantolo yavala lelogebe. Yathi ummangalelwa akanakuthola isigwebo esilekiwe esinganikezwanga iseluleko kamuva esinikezwe ecaleni. Ilungelo lokubopha ngaphambi kokuba agqunywe ejele liba ithuba langempela.

Okunamathiselwe Esongeni: Kuqala Nini?

ISichibiyelo seSihlanu selungelo lokuyalwa asiqalwa ngokuboshwa. Sinamathela ekusungulweni kwezindaba zokwahlulela ezingokomthetho . "Ngangoba kuqalwe, ukuqulwa kwecala, ukumangalelwa, ukwaziswa, noma ukubekwa imvume. Lokho kwakuyikubanjwe i-Rothgery v. Gillespie County [2001] [2008]. INkanto ecacile ukuthi lapho i-aversarial ments, i-layensect, ulwazi, noma imvume yokunikeza ummeli we-indignant phakathi nesikhathi esifanelekile. Nokho, isokudla akufaki umugqa wamaphoyisa noma ukuphenyaniswa ngaphandle kokuba kusukwa. (Iselulekwa ngokuphiswa kwecala phakathi nokuphenywa kwecala kuqinisekisiwe nge-[Foctive]][2]]).[5]

Usizo Oluphumelelayo Lweseluleko: Izimfanelo Ezibalulekile

Ukumiswa kwelungelo lokunikezwa iseluleko akukona nje ukuba nommeli kuphela. ISichibiyelo sesithupha siqinisekisa usizo oluphumelela kakhulu. Stickland v. Washington [19984], iNkantolo ePhakemekazi yamisa ukuhlolwa okungaphumelelanga kokunikeza usizo lwezeluleko. Ummangalelwa kumelwe abonise (1) ukuthi ukwenza kweseluleko kwakunephutha (kwehlisa izinga lobuhlakani lokuqonda), futhi (2) ukuthi ukungenzi kahle kokuzivikela kunengqondo, kodwa ngenxa yamaphutha, umphumela wezeluleko owenziwayo uyakuba nokwehlukile.

I- Srickland indinganiso edumile ehloniphekile kubameli abavikelayo. Izinkantolo azivamile ukuthola iseluleko singasebenzi. Noma kunjalo, ukuvuma okunjalo kudala isikhuthazo sokungaqondi kahle futhi kunikeza isivalo sokuphepha uma uhluleka.

Umphumela Wokukhokha: Isimiso Somvikeli Womphakathi Nezinselele Zaso

Ukuhlanganiswa kweSichibiyelo Sesithupha selungelo leseluleko kwabangela isidingo esikhulu sezinkonzo ezingokomthetho zabampofu.Izwe lasabela ngokumisa amahhovisi okuvikela umphakathi, ukuhlangana nabameli bomphakathi, noma ukwabela abameli abazimele amacala ngezimiso zokuzivikela. Namuhla, amahhovisi omphakathi asingatha izigidi zamacala ezweni lonke.

Kodwa isithembiso se Gedeon sisalokhu sigcwaliseka ngokwengxenye. Izimiso eziningi zomphakathi zokuvikela zihlala zingasebenzi kakhulu futhi zisebenza ngokweqile. Amakhasi adlula kude imingcele etuswayo. Ngenxa yalokho, abamangalelwa bangase bangatholi ukumelelwa okuphumelela ngempela. INhlangano yaseMelika nezinhlangano ezinye ziye zabhala phansi kwezimiso, kuhlanganise nokulinda isikhathi eside ukuze kucelwe iseluleko, imithombo elinganiselwe elinganiselweyo, nokucindezela kokukhomba ngecala ngokushesha. Kwezinye izikhulu, abavikeli bomphakathi basingatha amakhulu emicimbi yezesigebelo ngonyaka, okwenza kube okungenakukwazi ukunikeza ukunakekela okunenzuzo ewusizo ngakunye.

INkantolo Ephakeme iye yaqaphela ukuthi ukuthweswa kwamacala ngokweqile kungaphula ilungelo lokunikeza usizo oluphumelelayo, kodwa ukuqiniswa kwalelolungelo kunzima. Izinselele eziningi zokushiyeka kwesimiso somhlaba wonke, futhi izinkantolo ngokuvamile ziyanqikaza ukuthi ziphazamisa indlela amazwe anikeza ngayo imithombo yengcebo. Umphumela uyisimiso sobulungisa, nakuba siqinisekisa ngokusemthethweni, ngokuvamile sinikeza iseluleko ngegama kuphela.

Nokho, ukuhlanganisa kukhuphule iphansi. Ngaphambi kokuba Gedeon, abamangalelwa abaningi babengenawo nhlobo ummeli. Ngemva Gedeon[, wonke umbuso kumelwe unikeze ummeli kunoma imuphi ummangalelwa obhekene nokuboshwa. Ukulwa manje kungokwezinga eliphezulu futhi ukufinyelela ngokulinganayo kuzo zonke izinhlobo zecala.

Ezinye Izinga Lelungelo Leseluleko

Ilungelo Lokukhetha Iseluleko Nowayiver

ISichibiyelo sesithupha sinikeza abamangalelwa ilungelo lokugcina iseluleko sokuzikhethela kwabo, nelungelo lokusilahla ngokuphelele futhi bazimelele (uma nje umkhohlisi esazi, ehlakaniphile, futhi ezimisele). INkantolo yasekela ukuthi ukuzimelela ngokwakhe ilungelo [ku- Horetta v. California [0] [7975], iphethe ukuthi ilungelo lokulahla iseluleko lihlanganisa ilungelo lokulahla iseluleko nokuqhubeka.

Ilungelo Leseluleko Esihehayo

Ukufakwa kwelungelo lokweluleka kudlulela ekudluliseleni isikhalo sokuqala njengesesokudla. Douglas v. California [1963], iNkantolo yaphetha ngokuthi kumelwe inikeze iseluleko kubamangalelwa abamangalelwa abamangalelwe ngokudlulisa isikhalo sokuqala. Nokho, iNkantolo iye yathi akukho lungelo lomthetho lomthetho lokweluleka ngokudlulisa izikhalo noma izicelo ze-certiari eNkantolo Ephakeme.

Isiphetho: Ifa Lokukhulekela

Ukuhlanganiswa kweSichibiyelo Sesithupha selungelo lokululeka kufana nokunye kokufezwa okukhulu komthetho-mthetho-sisekelo waseMelika. Saguqula isiqinisekiso sokuthi ekuqaleni kwasetshenziswa enkantolo kahulumeni kuphela ngokwendinganiso yesizwe yezobugebengu. Ngezinqumo ezifana Gideon v. Wainwright, i-Argerger v. Hamlin, [[FLT]]RT] i-GOTY] v. Gillespie County[FLD ], iNkanto ephakeme yaqaphela ukuthi ukuqulwa ngaphandle komgethiwesi.

Inqubo yokuhlanganisa ayiphelele. Nakuba isokudla esingokomthetho manje sekuhlanganisiwe ngokugcwele, ilungelo elisebenzayo lihlala lingalingani. Ukuhluka kwemivubukulo, ukugawulwa kwezezimali, nokunganakwa kwezombangazwe kuyaqhubeka kululaza umgomo wobulungisa obulinganayo. Kodwa isisekelo somthetho-sisekelo siqinile. Noma yisiphi isimo esizama ukuncisha ummangalelwa ongazifuni iseluleko siyothola izenzo zaso zibhujiswe.

Ukuhlanganiswa kweSichibiyelo sesithupha kusebenza futhi njengesibonelo sendlela ezinye iziqinisekiso zeBhili lamaLungelo eziye zasetshenziswa ngayo kumazwe. Kubonisa amandla eSichibiyelo seshumi nane ukuqinisekisa ukuthi amalungelo ayisisekelo awawona nje amalungelo okwakheka kwezwe kodwa angawobuzibulo bawo wonke umuntu waseMelika. Ilungelo lokululeka ilungelo elenza wonke amalungelo alo amanye amalunga abe nengqondo. Ukufakwa kwalo emthethweni wezwe kube yindawo eshintshayo (*) nomsebenzi wokuwaqaphela ngokugcwele.

[[Umthetho:0] Izikhombo ze-External:[[[Umthetho:1]