Ukuqonda indlela amandla anikezwa ngayo phakathi kukamasipala, umbuso, nohulumeni bezwe kuyisisekelo sokuqonda indlela i-United States esebenza ngayo. Lesimiso esinemiphetho ebanzi, esaziwa ngokuthi i-constalism, sidala ukulinganisela lapho isilinganiso ngasinye sinemithwalo ehlukene, kodwa ngokuvamile sisebenza ndawonye ekukhonzeni izakhamuzi. Nakuba umbhalo wokuqala uhlanganisa izinto eziyisisekelo, ukuhlola okujulile kwembula izisekelo zomthetho-sisekelo, ukuziphendukela kwemvelo, kanye nokunye okusebenzayo okuchaza ukubusa kwaseMelika. Lesi sihloko siveza ukuhlukana, sinikeza ukubheka okubanzi ngokwengeziwe kwabafundi, abafundisi, nanoma ubani ofuna ukuqonda okuphelele kombuso, umbuso, kanye negunya lendawo.

Amandla Kahulumeni Kahulumeni: Umngcele Oyinhloko Wenkonzo Yomphakathi

Ohulumeni bakamasipala (--masipala, amadolobha, amalokishi, namadolobhana) liyizinga likahulumeni oseduze kakhulu nabantu. Amandla abo awagunyazwa ngokuqondile nguMthetho-sisekelo wase-U.S. kodwa agunyazwe ohulumeni ngombuso ngemithetho-mthetho kahulumeni, imithetho, noma imithetho kamasipala. Lobu buhlobo buvame ukubuswa yizinto Umthetho ka-Dilton [1], ohlanganisa izindawo ezivamile: [izindawo ezinikwe amandla kuphela i-Rosensive, noma , ezibanikeza indawo ebanzi yokulawula izindaba zendawo. Imibuso ethile iyahlukahluka kakhulu, kodwa ihlanganisa:

Ukwenza Imithetho Nemithetho Yasezindaweni

Imikhandlu kaMasipala nebhodi kudluliswa imithetho ekhuluma ngokuqondene nomphakathi: imithetho yomsindo, ukulawula izilwane, imithetho yokwakha, kanye nezinkathazo zomphakathi. Lezi zimiso akumelwe zingqubuzane nemithetho kahulumeni noma kahulumeni. Ngokwesibonelo, idolobha lingase livimbele izikhwama zepulasitiki eyodwa, kodwa alinakubhalisa umthetho owenqabelayo. Igunya lokudala imithetho yendawo liwukusetshenziswa okuqondile kwamandla amaphoyisa agunyazwelwe uhulumeni ukuze avikele impilo, ukuphepha, nenhlalakahle.

Ukuzingela Nendawo Kuyasetshenziswa

Izifunda-mazwe zisebenzisa izimpawu ezibonisa izindawo zokuhlala, ezentengiselwano, ezezimboni, noma ezixubene. Zikhipha futhi imvume yokwakha nokumisa imithetho elandelwayo. La mandla alolonga isimo sezindawo ezisenkabeni futhi angashukumisa ukuthuthuka kwezomnotho. Indaba ephawulekayo, I-Village of Euclid v. Ambler Realty Co. (1926), asekela ukufaneleka komthetho-mthetho wemithetho yemithetho ehlanganisa imingcele, amisa isithakazelo esingokomthetho sokuqondisa ukusetshenziswa kwezwe.

Izinkonzo Zomphakathi Ezibalulekile

Ohulumeni bakahulumeni banomthwalo wemfanelo wezinkonzo eziningi izakhamuzi ezithembele kuzo nsuku zonke:

  • Ukutholakala kwamanzi nezimiso zokwelapha ezilahlwayo
  • Ukuqoqwa kwemfucumfucu eqinile nokusetshenziswa kabusha
  • Amapaki omphakathi, izikhungo zokuzijabulisa, nemitapo yezincwadi
  • Ukugcinwa komthetho endaweni (iminyango yamaphoyisa) nokuvikelwa komlilo
  • Ukulungiswa kwemigwaqo, izimpawu zezimoto, nokususwa kweqhwa
  • Ukuvunyelwa komthetho nokugcinwa kwemithetho (ukwakha, impilo, umlilo)

“ Idolobha aliyona nje indawo; liyinhlangano engokomthetho edalwe ngumbuso ukuba isebenzise imisebenzi kahulumeni wendawo. Imibuso yalo isuka kuhulumeni futhi ingaphansi kwegunya lombuso.” - I-projected ukusuka kuyi-panery engokomthetho ezinhlanganweni zikamasipala.

Ukukhokha Intela Nenzuzo Endaweni

Ukuxhasa lezi zinkonzo, omasipala bathembele ngokuyinhloko ezintelani zempahla, ezikhokhwayo ngezindawo ezisemikhawulweni yabo. Amanye amadolobha afaka futhi intela yendawo, intela yokuthengisela, intela (hotel/motel), intela yemali yebhizinisi, nemali yokukhokha yezisebenzi zezinkonzo ezinjengendawo yamanzi nemfucumfucu. Nokho, omasipala abaningi bacindezelwa yizikhwama zentela ezibekwe uhulumeni noma imingcele yokuthi imali ingakhushunyuswa kanjani. USUSA.gov amaphepha ehhotela intela yohulumeni bendawo anikeza ukucubuthwa okuwusizo kokuthiwa kwalemisebenzi engokomthetho.

Imibuso Kahulumeni Kahulumeni: Ikhothamo Lombuso Wasekhaya

Ohulumeni boMbuso bahlanganisa imibuso ebanzi, engayisebenzisi ngaphansi kweSichibiyelo seshumi: “Imibuso engaphathi i-United States ngoMthetho-sisekelo, noma enqatshelwe yiwo e-United States, igcinelwe i-United States ngokulandelana, noma abantu.” Lokhu kunikeza igunya kuhulumeni kuzo zonke izindaba ezingabelwenga ngokuqondile kuhulumeni ophethe. Ohulumeni bahulumeni banemithetho yabo siqu, ababusi abakhethiwe, izishaya-mthetho-mthetho, nezimiso zenkantolo. Imibuso yabo ihlanganisa:

Igunya Lomthetho Nomthetho KaHulumeni

Izishaya-mthetho zikahulumeni zimisa imithetho esebenza kubo bonke abasezweni. Lezizimbobo ezinjengezindawo zomkhaya (umshado, isehlukaniso, ilungelo lokuhlala nabantwana), umthetho wempahla, umthetho wesivumelwano, umthetho wobugebengu (icala elikhulu liwubugebengu bamazwe), imfundo, nomthetho wokunakekela impilo. Amazwe futhi angamisa imithetho evikela kakhulu izakhamuzi kunomthetho kahulumeni, ngokwesibonelo, ikhuphule umholo ophezulu kwephansi likahulumeni noma imisa izindinganiso eziqinile zendawo ezungezile.

Amazwe futhi anamandla okulawula ezentengiselwano ze-intrastate j system ezenza zonke izikhawu zawo. Lokhu kuhlanganisa ukudayisa ochwepheshe (odokotela, abameli, abagundi bezinwele), ukuqondisa izinkampani zomshuwalense, kanye nokwengamela.

Imfundo Yomphakathi Nezokuhamba

Imfundo ngokuyinhloko iwumthwalo wemfanelo kazwelonke. Ohulumeni boMbuso bamisa izimfuneko zezifundo, bamisa izimfuneko zokuphothula, izikole zomphakathi (kaningi ngenhlanganisela yemali kahulumeni neyasekhaya), futhi bengamele izitifiketi zothisha. Baphethe namayunivesithi kahulumeni namakholiji omphakathi. Ngokufanayo, izifunda zezimiso ezinkulu zemigwaqo, ukunikeza amalayisensela okubhalisa izimoto nokuhlola ukuphepha. Iminyango yoMbuso yezinhlelo zokuhamba nemisebenzi yezezinkonzo zomgwaqo, ngokuvamile isebenzisana nohulumeni wezwe.

Ukukhokha Intela Kahulumeni

Amazwe aphoqa intela ehlukahlukene ukuze kukhokhelwe lezinkonzo ezinkulu. Intela kahulumeni evamile ihlanganisa:

  • Izintela zomuntu siqu nezezinkampani (ezifundazweni eziningi)
  • Ukuthenga izintela zezimpahla nezinye izinkonzo
  • Izintela zokuchitha uphethiloli, utshwala, ugwayi, ne - cannabis (lapho kungokomthetho)
  • Izintela zempahla (izindawo ngokuvamile ziqoqwa)
  • Izintela zefa noma zefa (kwezinye izindawo)

Izimiso zentela zikahulumeni zihluka kakhulu; ngokwesibonelo, iTexas ayinantela yemali kodwa incike kakhulu ekuthengiseni nasezintela zempahla, kanti iCalifornia ineholo eliphezulu nentela yokuthengisa. Conreg. ikhasi leSichibiyelo seshumi [ linikeza isisekelo somthetho-mthetho-sisekelo samandla kahulumeni.

Amandla Amaphoyisa Nempilo Yomphakathi

Izwe lisebenzisa lokho okwaziwa ngokuthi “umbuso wamaphoyisa”" negunya eliyifa lemvelo lokuthatha isinyathelo empilweni yomphakathi, ekulondekeni, nasekulondekeni. Lokhu kunikeza ikhono lokuphoqelela ukuhlukaniswa kwabantu ngokungedwa, ukulawula ukuphepha kokudla namanzi, ukugoma okugunyaza izingane zesikole, futhi ukuphathwa kwezibhedlela namakhaya asebekhulile. Phakathi nobhadane lwe-COVID-19, amazwe asebenzisa leli gunya ukuze ahlele ukuba kuhlale emakhaya, amabhizinisi avinjelwe, kanye nezifihlabuso (ingaphansi kwezinselele ezihlukahlukene ezingokomthetho). Amaphoyisa kahulumeni asebenza ngendlela ebanzi kodwa akumelwe aphule amalungelo omthetho.

Imibuso Kahulumeni Wezwe: Igunya Lenhlangano

Uhulumeni wezwe − ngokuvamile ubiza uhulumeni kahulumeni wezwe ngokuthi − uphethe amandla awo kusukela kuMthetho-sisekelo wase-U.S. Igunya lawo lilinganiselwe emibuso ebaliwe eSiphakamini I, Ingxenye 8, kanye naleyo eshiwo yi-Fanetic Clause (Isicatshulwa Sesi - 8, I, Ingxenye 8, u-Claus 18). Uhulumeni kahulumeni unguhulumeni wemibuso ephathisiwe. Izindawo eziyinhloko zihlanganisa:

Izindaba Zakwamanye Amazwe Nezokuzivikela Kwezwe

Uhulumeni wesizwe unegunya elikhethekile phezu kwesimiso sakwelinye indawo. Lokhu kuhlanganisa ukungenela izivumelwano (ngemvume yesigele), ukumisa ubuhlobo bezokuxhumana, ukuqondisa ezentengiselwano zamazwe ngamazwe, nokumisa impi. Umongameli usebenza njengomphathi-nhloko wamabutho ahlomile, nezimali zeSishaya-Mkhandlu futhi uqondisa ibutho lezempi. Uhulumeni wezwe ulawula ukufuduka nokubekwa kwemvelo . /ukumiswa kwezimiso zokungena, indawo yokuhlala, nezakhamuzi. Uhulumeni nendawo yendawo ngeke baqhube inqubo yangaphandle, nakuba bengase bahileleke kwezentengiselwano yezentengiselwano yezentengiselwano yezentengiselwano yezentengiselwano yezentengo noma yempucuko evumelana nenqubo kahulumeni.

Ezentengiselwano Zesifundazwe Nesimiso Sezomnotho

I-Choomer Claus inikeza uKhomishane amandla okulawula ezohwebo “phakathi kwezifundana ezimbalwa.” Lokhu kuye kwachazwa kabanzi ngokuhamba kwesikhathi ukuvumela imithetho kahulumeni cishe yonke imisebenzi yezezomnotho enethonya elikhulu entengiselwaneni yasezweni. Ngokwesibonelo, uhulumeni umisa iholo elilinganiselwe nezindinganiso zezingasebenzi (Izindinganiso zezemisebenzi), uvimbela ukucwaswa kwemisebenzi, ukulawula imibandela yezezimali, nokugcinwa kwemithetho evimbela ukugcinwa kwemithetho esemthethweni. Ukwanda kwalamandla kwaqiniswa [[FLT: 0] NLB v. Jones & Laugley Sound Corp. [195] [195] [195] [5], okusekela ukugcinwa kweNational Labor Relations Act. [5] Izinqulutions.[5]

Banamandla Futhi Basetshenziswa

ISiphakamiso I, Ingxenye 8 ihlela amandla akhethekile angu-18, kuhlanganise namandla okukhokha imali, ukumisa amahhovisi eposi, ukunikeza izimvume nezimvume zokubhala, nokuphakamisa nokusekela amabutho. I-Mudie and Sed Clause ivumela uKhongolo-kanye nemithetho edingekayo ukuze kufezwe la mibuso ekhahliweyo. Amalungiselelo adala isisekelo segunya likahulumeni phezu kwayo yonke into kusukela ekuweni kwemali kuya empahleni kwempahla yezengqondo kuya kumthetho kazwelonke (i-Supremaclicas, i-Agarticle VI).

Ukufuduka Nokuzivuselela Kwemvelo

Uhulumeni kahulumeni unamandla okulawula ukufuduka. Umisa izigaba zemvume, unquma izinqubo zokukhosela, futhi uphoqelela ukuvikelwa komngcele. Izwe alinakwenza izimiso zalo zokufuduka, nakuba lingabambisana nomthetho kahulumeni ngezivumelwano ezifana ne-Cult 287(g) ye-Immigation and Nationality Act. Icala lamuva Arizona v. United States (20:2) lishaye imithetho kahulumeni ezama ukwephula umthetho kahulumeni wezwe owephula umthetho wezentengiselwano, uqinisekisa igunya likahulumeni elikhethekile kulendawo.

Ukushaya Ihlombe Ngokudlulele Namandla Ahlukene: Ukubambisana Kwezikhungo Zokulwa Kuyasebenza

Nakuba izinga ngalinye linezindawo ezihlukene, imisebenzi eminingi ihlanganyelwa esimisweni sobuzwe (samazwe asebenzelanayo) (avame ukuchazwa ngokuthi “ikhokhi eliqinile lombuso.” Esikhundleni sokuhlukana okuqinile, ukugeleza kwezimali zikahulumeni ezizweni nasezindaweni ngemvume, futhi izifundazwe zinikeza izinhlelo eziningi zikahulumeni. Izibonelo zihlanganisa:

FunctionFederal RoleState RoleLocal Role
Law EnforcementFBI, DEA, federal crimesState police, criminal codeCity police, local ordinances
EducationFederal funding (Title I, IDEA), Department of Education guidelinesCurriculum standards, teacher certification, state universitiesSchool districts, property tax funding, building maintenance
Environmental ProtectionEPA sets national standards (Clean Air Act, Clean Water Act)State environmental agencies implement and enforce; can be stricterLocal zoning, waste management, water treatment
TransportationFederal funding for highways (ISTEA), FAA air traffic controlState DOTs plan and build highways, issue driver’s licensesLocal roads, public transit, streetlights
Public HealthCDC guidelines, FDA regulation, Medicare/Medicaid fundingState health departments manage Medicaid, issue licensesLocal health departments, clinics, sanitation
Disaster ResponseFEMA provides federal resources and coordinationState emergency management agencies lead initial responseFirst responders, local evacuation plans

Lesi sakhiwo esihlanekezelwe singadala izingxabano, njengalapho izindinganiso zendawo ezungezile zikahulumeni zingqubuzana nezithakazelo zezomnotho zikahulumeni noma lapho imithetho kahulumeni yensangu ingqubuzana nomthetho kahulumeni onqabelayo. Nokho, futhi ivumela ukuvumelana nokuvumelana nezimo nokusungulwa: isebenza “njengemisebenzi yentando yeningi,” njengoba kwaphawulwa ngokudume kakhulu uSahluleli weNkantolo ePhakeme Louis Brandeis, ukuhlola okungase kamuva kuthathwe njengesizwe.

Isimiso SobuFederali: Ukulinganisela Amandla Aphesheya Kwamazinga

I-Federalism ayiminyene; iye yavela ngemithetho yeNkantolo Ephakeme, umthetho we-cononication, kanye nomkhuba wezombangazwe. Phakathi nenkathi ye- uhulumeni [madegree], amafream nezinkantolo zabona ohulumeni bezwe nababendlu behlukene benezimbulunga ezihlukene. Ukucindezeleka okukhulu nomthetho omusha kungenisa uhulumeni wesizwe [[, lapho uhulumeni wesizwe waqala khona ukusebenzisa iziphakamiso nemithetho yokulungisa izenzo zezwe. Namuhla, sinesimiso sokulawula [[FLT] [FLD:] [FF:] [5], lapho kusungulwa khona izimo zesizwe ezingokomthetho wesizwe (FLT.G.g.) noma ukuphakamisa isigaba sezemfundo yombuso wombuso womthetho womthetho womthetho womthetho womthetho womthetho.

Kodwa ukulinganisela kusaphikiswa. Izahlulelo ze-Conservative zivame ukusekela ukubuyiselwa amandla ezizweni ngezimfundiso ezinjenge umyali-oyi-anti [, ovimbela uhulumeni kahulumeni ukuba aphoqelele ukumisa imithetho engokomthetho ukuba isebenzise imithetho kahulumeni. Isinqumo seNkantolo Ephakeme ka-1997 Pretz v. United States yashaya umthetho kahulumeni ofuna ukuba izikhululo ezilawula isizinda, ilondoloze isimo sokuzimela. Ngokuphikisana nomthetho, izahlulelo eziphandlekayo nabakhi bomthetho ngokuvamile bakhomba indima kahulumeni ekuvikeleni amalungelo esizwe nokuqinisekisa izindinganiso ze-yunifomu ezweni lonke.

Ukuqonda lobu mandla kubalulekile. Iprojekthi yokuhlolwa kwe-publicalism i-'i-'polet'''s quotis''' yemikhondo eyisihluthulelo yamacala eNkantolo Ephakeme echaza lemingcele. Ngaphezu kwalokho, imithombo enjenge USA.ukungakhasi emagatsheni amathathu' kusiza ekucaciseni indlela uhulumeni wesizwe ngokwawo ohlukene ngayo, ukwenezela enye inhlo nesilinganiso.

Isiphetho

Amazinga amathathu kahulumeni waseMelika .muninipal, isifundazwe, nesizwe, akawona amasilosi ahlukene kodwa asebenza ngokubambisana esimisweni esiyinkimbinkimbi sikahulumeni. Imisebenzi yohulumeni inikeza izinkonzo ezisheshayo ezilololonga ukuphila kwansuku zonke, i-odocta iphatha isimiso esibanzi sasekhaya ngegunya elizimele, futhi uhulumeni wezwe usingatha izindaba zombuso wezwe lonke. Imibuso yawo, nakuba ihlukile, ivumelana ngezindlela ezifuna ukubambisana futhi ngezinye izikhathi iholele ekucindezelekeni. Ukuqonda okulinganiselwe kwalokhu kungafani kunika izakhamuzi amandla okuhlanganyela ngokubaluleka nohulumeni bazo kuzo zonke izingalo. Kungakhathaliseki ukuthi ukuvota kwezindawo zokhetho, ukusekela umthetho wezwe, noma ukusekela umthetho womthetho womhlaba wonke. Ayazi ukuthi ubani owenzani ukuthi kungani kuthathe isinyathelo sokuqala sokuhlanganyela kolwazi kuyi-Riphabliki embutho ebusayo.