Umlando Nokufinyelelwa KweSichibiyelo Seshumi Nane

ISichibiyelo seshumi nane seSichibiyelo, esagunyazwa ngoJuly 9, 1868, savela emlotheni weMpi Yombango njengengxenye yeziHlanziso zeNguquko zeNkathi yeshumi nanhlanu nezinhlanu. Injongo yaso eyinhloko yayiwukuqinisekisa amalungelo abantu baseAfrika abasanda kukhululeka futhi ilungise ubuhlobo phakathi kukahulumeni nezwe. Ukulungisa kwakuyimpendulo eqondile eMbusweni [[FLT: 0] Ebhudlekeni iMithende yemithetho ebekwe yizishayamkhuba zaseNingizimu ngo-18566, eyayibekela imingcele eqinile inkululeko yangaphambili yezigqila, ezizakhelwayo, ezivumeni ezinkantolo, noma ekuhambeni ngokukhululekile. Lemithetho yazama ukugcina isimiso se-ekhomu ye-FLT.

Congress, eholwa yiRepublicans, yaqaphela ukuthi i-Civil Rights Act ka-1866, eyanikeza i-volution nesivikelo esifanayo ngaphansi komthetho, yayingase-ehliswa yi-Congress yamuva noma ihlaselwe izinkantolo. Ukumisa lezi zivikelo unomphela, bafaka iSiphendulo se 144th futhi bayidlulisa ezizweni ukuze ikwazi ukuhlukanisa. Inguquko yabhekana nokuphikiswa okukhulu eNingizimu, kodwa ekugcineni yavunyelwa ngemva kohulumeni ababekhona ngaphambili ezindaweni ezihlangene. [[FLT:] i-National Archivess [FLD] igcina umbhalo wokuqala, ohlala usekholwe ngemva komthetho womthetho womthetho.

Izinsika Ezintathu: Ukuba Umnini - khaya, Inqubo Efanele Nesivikelo Esilinganayo

Ukuba UClaus Uyisakhamuzi

Ingxenye 1 yeSichibiyelo se 14th iqala ngeSiphendulo sika-Citizenshic Claus: "Bonke abantu abazalwa noma abadalwe e-United States, futhi abangaphansi kwegunya layo, bayizakhamuzi zase-United States naseHulumeni lapho behlala khona. Lengxenye yawugumbuqela ngokuqondile umsuka odumayo Ded Scott v. Sandford[[FLD:1] [1857] isinqumo, lapho uMahluleli omkhulu uRoger Taney amemezela khona ukuthi amaMelika aseAfrika ayengesona futhi akasoze abe yizakhamuzi zase-U. Ngokumisa ubuzibulo, i-andrendrendreng qinisekisa ukuthi noma ubani owazalelwa ezweni laseMelika, noma umzali ohlanga, noma umzali uqobo walethwa wonke amalungelo. Lesi simiso siye saphindaphindwa futhi saphinda ngokuphindaphindiwe, izakhamuzi ezingxabeni ezingangeni eziningi zezingane zezingane ezingeni. [F3] [F3]

Izinhlelo ezilindelekile

IMsebenzi yeNkqutyana ka-Claus ithi: "Nanoma yimuphi uMbuso uyoncisha noma yimuphi umuntu ukuphila, inkululeko, noma impahla, ngaphandle kwenqubo efanelekile yomthetho" ekuqaleni, iBill of Rights (inguquko yokuqala eyishumi) kuphela eyavimbela uhulumeni wezwe. Lenqubo ye 144th Isigungu sokushintsha u-Sinqulo yaqala ukuphatha i-Sivumelwano u-Celade [[[FFO:][F3]].[10] i-FFFUT].[10][10] Ilungiselelo leNguqulo liyimpondo ehlolele [[FFFUM].[10][10][10]

Ukuvikela UClaus Ngokulinganayo

I-Unicial Protection Claus iyayala: "Kungekhona enqaba kunoma ubani ophakathi kwegunya lakhe ukuvikelwa okufanayo kwemithetho." Lesi sisho saklanyelwa ukuvimbela izimo ngokumelene nanoma iliphi iqembu. Nokho, ukuchaza kwayo kwakuqala kwakumngcingo. [[[FLT: 0][[FLT]]][FLT]] v. Ferguson[[186] [186]] [INkakhulu] [186], iNkantolo ephakeme yanquma ukuthi isigaba sohlanga sasiwumthetho wesizwe esilingana kakhulu nezakhiwo zesizwe, kodwa sandisa ezinye izakhiwo zesizwe, kodwa ezinye izilinganiso, [[F].[5] [ezinga elihlukene] [[F]

Amacala Enkantolo Aphakeme Nethonya Lawo

IsiHluzi seshumi nane siye saba sici esiyinhloko ezinqumweni eziningi eziyinhloko zeNkantolo Ephakeme. Itafula elilandelayo liqokomisa amacala ayinhloko ngalé kohlu lokuqala, okubonisa ububanzi be-ace:

Icala Elingaqondakali

  • Gitlow v. New York (1925) – Inkululeko ehlanganisiwe yokukhuluma ngokumelene nezifundazwe nge-Exct Programme Claus, ivula umnyango wokuhlanganisa cishe zonke iziqinisekiso zamalungelo.
  • [FLT]] Mapp v.Oo (1761]) – Yandisiwe umthetho weSichibiyelo sesine (ubufakazi obutholakele bungasetshenziswa enkantolo yesifundazwe) ezizweni, ukuqinisa inqubo elungile.
  • Gideon v. Wainwright (1963) - izimo ezidingekayo ukunikeza iseluleko kubamangalelwa abamangalelwa abangakwazi ukukhokhela ummeli, ukuqinisekisa ilungelo lokuqulwa kwecala elilungile.
  • Miranda v. Arizona (1966) – yamisa imfuneko yokuba amaphoyisa asole amalungelo awo (ilungelo lokuthula, ukuye kummeli) ngaphambi kokuphenywa kwemvume, okusekelwe esibuyeni sesihlanu sokuzinqumela ngokumelene nokwethulwa kwe-Geneticmentation eyahlanganiswa nge-145.

Icala Lesivikelo Elilinganayo

  • [FLT] Brown v. Ibhodi yemfundo (1954) - Ngokuphindiwe yabulala ukuhlukaniswa kwezinhlanga ezikoleni zomphakathi, yenqaba "ukuhlukanisa kodwa ilingana" imfundiso. Lesinqumo saba isisekelo esingokomthetho se-Civil Rights Movement.
  • ukuphuma v. Virginia (1967) - - imithetho yombuso enqabela ukuganana kwezinhlanga, iphethe ukuthi imingcele enjalo iphula kokubili iSivikelo esilinganayo neNkathi ka-Celas. Isinqumo saqinisekisa ukuthi ubuhlobo bomuntu siqu buvikelekile ekuphazanyisweni kombuso wokuhlukanisa izinhlanga.
  • Ehliwe v. Reed (1971] – yaphawula okokuqala ngqá iNkantolo Ephakeme yashaya umthetho osekelwe ekucwaseni ubulili ngaphansi kweSivikeli sika Claus esilinganayo, ivula indlela yezezo ezalandela ukulingana kwamacala.
  • [FLT][FON Antonio Independent School District v. Rodriguez - - Iwayithi i-Fogle Isivikelo esilinganayo u-Claus akadingi ukulingana okuphelele kwemali yesikole, kodwa uvumela amazwe ukuba akhulume ngokumelene ngokwemithetho.
  • bergefell v. Hodges (2015) - - Waqaphela ilungelo lomthetho-mfakela lomshado ofanayo ngaphansi kwe-Sect Programme neSivikelo sika-Claus esilinganayo, ukunwebela amalungelo ayisisekelo ku LGBTQ+ imibhangqwana ezweni lonke.

Izenzakalo Zenqubo Ezingaqondakali

  • [FLT] Griswold v.Connecticut [1965]) – yamisa ilungelo lomthetho-sisekelo lokweqa umlomo, ishaya umthetho ovimbela ukuvimbela inzalo kwemibhangqwana eshadile. Lokhu kwabeka isisekelo samalungelo okuzala kamuva.
  • ROE v. [[FLT]] – Sebenzisa iNdlela Yolwazi Yowesifazane ukuqaphela ilungelo lokukhipha isisu phakathi ne-meter yeyokuqala. (INkantolo i-Nothi: iNkantolo iphethe iRoe Dobbs v. Jackson’s Health Organization [[[FLT:]]22], ibuyisela ukukhishwa kwesisu kulezo zigodlo.)
  • Lawrence v. Texas [2003] – Imithetho eqinile kahulumeni ye-sodomay, iqinisekisa inkululeko yabantu abadala yokuhlanganyela ebuhlotsheni bobulili ngasese ngaphansi kwe-Claus yeNdlela ye-Ast Claus.

ISichibiyelo Seshumi Nane Nenhlangano Yamalungelo Omphakathi

During the Civil Rights Movement of the 1950s and 1960s, the Fourteenth Amendment served as both a legal sword and shield. Activists and lawyers from the NAACP Legal Defense Fund—most notably Thurgood Marshall—used the Equal Protection Clause to dismantle segregation in public schools, transportation, and public accommodations. The strategy was deliberate: chipping away at Plessy by proving that segregated facilities were inherently unequal. Brown v. Board of Education was the crowning achievement, but it was preceded by cases like Missouri ex rel.I-games v. Canada (1938) kanye [[FLT]] Sweatt v. Paneter (1950).

Ukulungisa futhi kwasekela ukunqoba okukhulu komthetho kulenhlangano. [[FLT: 0] ICivil Rights Act ka-1944 yancike kumthetho wezentengiselwano ka-Claus noMnyango Wezokuvikela u-Elimini Claus wokwenqabela ukucwalwa kwezindawo zomphakathi nokusebenza. [[FLT:]] Ukuqinisekisa amalungelo [[FLT] [[FLT]] [[FLT]] [[FLT]], okwasusa ukuhlola nokufunda ukufunda nokubhadayisa i-okisi, kwasekelwa eSiphemeni se-Filethi se-59th Rendectic Revement kodwa kwaqinisekisa isiqinisekiso se-Indement se-Intelligement se-.[FF][5]

Ibhikisho engenabudlova − njenge-Montgomery Bus Boycott (1955-1956), i-scames e-Greensboro ebalini lokudla kwasemini (1960), ne-Selma eMontgomery (65)) . yaphoqelela izwe ukuba libhekane negebe phakathi kwezithembiso ze-antementation futhi laphila ngokoqobo. ISichibiyelo seshumi elinesine sasingesona nje ithuluzi elingokomthetho; sasiyisibani sokuziphatha esikhunjululwa uMartin Luther King Jr. ku-"Letter ukusuka eBirming Jail" futhi ku "Inephupho". INkosi yaveza ukuthi i-mendment isho isaziso "proschory" eyayingahleli eMelika, futhi i-ake ukukhomba imali.

Izinhlelo zokusebenza zanamuhla Nempikiswano Eqhubekayo

ISichibiyelo Seshumi Nane siseyincwadi ephilayo, esetshenziswa cishe kuyo yonke impikiswano enkulu yamalungelo omphakathi yekhulu lama - 21.

Isenzo Esiqinisayo

Kusukela kuma 1970, i-Livince Protection Claus ibiyindawo eyinhloko yokuphikisana ngokuthatha isinyathelo sokuvuma emfundweni nasemsebenzini. [[FLT:][FLT]] Izibalo zeYunivesithi yaseCalifornia v. Bakke[[FLT]][[FLT]][[FLT]] [1978] [[FLT]] [2] [2] [2]), iNkakhulu leNkantolo ephakeme yasekela ukucatshangelwa kohlanga njengengxenye eyodwa ekhona kodwa iqediwe ngokwehlukana kwezinhlanga.[FT] [2] Izimiso ezingaphezulu [FFFFFOT].[10] [12] ihluleka kakhulu ukukhipha izikhawulo zezehlakalo.[12] [12] [12]

Ukusakaza Amalungelo

ISichibiyelo se 14th Se-Fluble Protection Claus sisetshenziselwa ukubekela imithetho yokuvota inselele, kuhlanganise nezimfuneko ze-ID, igerrymander, nefelony dicenfrancence. [FLT]][FLT]] Slby County v.Haver[FLT]][3] [2020:3] [20] [iNkakhulu]), iNkantolo yalahla ilungiselelo eliyinhloko le-Voting Rights Act, iphikisa ngokuthi indlela yokukhokhela esekelwe emniningongo 1960s yaba isaphelelwa isikhathi. Isinqumo sivunyelwe ukubeka imithetho emisha yokuvota ngaphandle kwe-precureance, iholela ekukhithisweni kwemisebe ngaphansi kwe-Geneardemitence. [5] I-CT][5] Imithetho eqinile ye-NationalF]

LGBTQ+ amalungelo

ISichibiyelo seshumi nane leminyaka siye saba isisekelo sokwandisa amalungelo kuLGBTQ+ abantu ngabanye. Obergefell v. Hoddell [20] [20] imishado efanayo esemthethweni, kodwa ukulungisa futhi kuyawavikela amabala emsebenzini (njengoba kuqiniswe [[FLT:]][FLT]][5]]BHOCTY][[FLT] County v. County[[FLT:][FL:][20]]) ngaphansi kwesihloko se-I) futhi kunganwebela kwezinye izindawo njengezindawo njengendlu nezokunakekela impilo. Izimo eziningi ziye zazama ukuvimbela imithetho evimbela ukuhlangana kwezemidlalo noma ukuphathana kwezezemidlalo, i-flectivestingsss productives syt provisions.[FU][5]

Ukufuduka Nokuzalwa Ngokufanelekile

I-sazecritity Claus ihlala ingundabh'ekuphikisaneni kwabantu abafudukayo. Abanye abezombangazwe baye bacela ukuba kuqedwe ubuzibulo bezingane zabafuduki abangabikwanga, bephikisa ngokuthi ibinzana elithi "zithobela isifunda sayo" likhipha labo abangabuswanga ngokugcwele i-U.S.. Nokho, ukuchazwa okungokomthetho okukhona, okuxhaswe ku-[FLT][1] United States v. UWong Kim Arks [18], uqinisekisa ukuthi noma ubani ozalelwe eU.S..[1] Inhlabathi ngaphandle kwabantwana bebutho lamanye amabutho ahlasela amabutho. Ushintsho lungadinga ukumiswa komthetho, hhayi umthetho noma umthetho wezenzi.

Izinselele Nezimpikiswano Ezichazayo Eziqhubekayo

Naphezu kokubaluleka kwayo okuhlala njalo, iSichibiyelo seshumi nane asinakuphikiswa. Izazi ze-Credistism ziphikisa ngokuthi incazelo yencazelo kufanele iqondiswe ekuqondeni kwabaqondisi baso ngo-1868, okungalinganisela ukusebenza kwabo ezindabeni zanamuhla ezifana nokushada okungathsingi noma ukuvuma. Kwesinye isandla, abalweli bomthetho-mthetho-sisekelo abaphikisa ukuthi ukulungiseka kolimi olubanzi", "inqubo yamanje," "isivikelo esilinganayo"" imelwe incike ngokushintsha kokuqonda komphakathi. Ukushintsha kwemibono yeNkantolo Ephakeme kusho ukuthi isivikelo seNkantolo inganweba noma izivumelwano ngokuhlelwa kweNkantolo.

Enye impikiswano iphathelene nobukhulu besenzo sikahulumeni. ISichibiyelo seshumi nane seSichibiyelo sezehlo senqabela kuphela isigaba i-[FLT] i- ubandlululo, hhayi ubandlululo lwangasese. Lomehluko waba bucayi Shelley v. Kraemer[FLT] [198]], eyayithi izinkantolo azinakuphoqelela ukuvimbela izivumelwano zezindlu ezivimbela izinhlanga ngokwezinhlanga ngoba lokho kungahilela isenzo sombuso. Kodwa umugqa phakathi kwezenzo zomphakathi nezomphakathi uhlala ungena lula, ikakhulukazi njengezindawo zokuhlala nemfundo yomphakathi.

Ngaphezu kwalokho, isithembiso sokulungisa isilinganiso asikaze sigcwaliseke ngokugcwele. Ukungalingani kwezomnotho, ukuboshwa kwabantu abaningi, nokuhlukaniswa kwezentengiselwano zempilo kuyaqhubeka kuhambisana nohlanga. Abagxeki baphikisa ngokuthi izinkantolo bezinqikaza ukushaya imithetho eshaya imingcele ehlukene ngokungenakulinganiswa emaqembu ngaphandle kokuba kunobufakazi obucacile benhloso yokulingana. Inkolelo ethi "ithonya elihlukanisayo", eyovumela izinselele ezisekelwe ekuhlukani kwezibalo, iye yalinganiselwa yiNkanto enkantolo ezimweni ezifana .[FLT][5][5][5][FLT][12][6] [6]. Izehluleko, kanjalo ihlala iyithuluzi lokulwa kwezehlukana kweze-octiveneywomstiki esebenzayo, kodwa isebenza ngokumelene nezimiso zokwakhelo.

Isiphetho

ISichibiyelo seshumi nane leminyaka siyilungiselelo elibaluleke kakhulu lomthetho-sisekelo lokuvikela amalungelo omphakathi e-United States. Kusukela ekuvuselweni kwayo kuya engxenyeni yayo eMzabalazweni wamalungelo abantu nasekusebenzeni kwayo kwezindaba zamanje njenge LGBTQ + ukulingana, ukuvuma, nokuthatha isinyathelo, nokuvota, ukulungisa kuye kwaba amandla amakhulu obulungisa. Izisho zayo ``ICitnizedship, i-Sy Proced, ne-Unicime Develoption' (ukuvikelwa kwezwe) kuyaqhubeka ukulungisa isakhiwo esingokomthetho, futhi isizukulwane ngasinye kumelwe sibambene incazelo yaso. Nakuba isiphelo singaziqedisi zonke izinhlobo zobandlululo, kunikeza ukwakheka okunamandla kokungalungisi komthetho. Ukuqonda umlando wayo nokuchaza kubalulekile kunoma ubani ozimisele ukulwa ngokulingana ngaphansi komthetho.