Isingeniso

Isimiso somthetho sakhiwe ngesisekelo sokulunga, ukungaguquguquki, nokulandisa. Ngaphakathi, sifuna ukuxazulula izimpikiswano, ukuvikela amalungelo abantu, nokusekela umthetho. Kulesi simiso, izinkantolo ze-applate zisebenza njengongwengwengwe olunenselele olugxekayo, kuqiniseki ukuthi izinqumo zenkantolo eziqulwayo zibukelwe ngokunembile ngokomthetho nangokulunga. Ngokungafani nezinkantolo ezihlolayo, ezinquma amaqiniso futhi zisebenzise umthetho emacaleni athile, izinkantolo ezigxile ngokukhethekile emibusweni engokomthetho, − umthetho owephulwe ngokwendlela esemthethweni, noma umthetho ongokomthetho wasetshenziswa ngokungeyiphutha. Lesi sihloko sinikeza umbono obheke ngokushaya kwemisebe ezinkantolo ezingokomthetho, ezihlola izinhlelo zawo, izinqubo zazo, nezinyathelo ezihlala njalo.

Ziyini Izinkantolo Ezihlolwayo?

Izinkantolo ezihlola izinqumo ezenziwa izinkantolo eziphansi noma izinhlangano eziphethe. Aziphathi amacala amasha, zilalele ubufakazi obusha noma zamukele ubufakazi obusha. Kunalokho, zihlola umbhalo obhaliwe wecala, kuhlanganise nemibhalo ebhalwe phansi, imiboniso, nezimpikiswano ezingokomthetho, ukuze zinqume ukuthi umthetho wasetshenziswa ngokufanele yini. Ezinkantolo eziningi, izinkantolo ze-appellate zihlukaniswa phakathi kwezinkantolo eziphakathi (ngokuvamile ezibizwa ngokuthi amaNkantolo Amacala Adluliswayo) kanye nenkantolo ephakeme kakhulu (eyayaziwa kakhulu njengeNkantolo Ephakeme). Ngokwesibonelo, i-United States inezinkantolo ezingokomthetho ezingu-13 ezibukeza izinkantolo zesifunda, nezinkantolo eziphethe isifunda.

Izakhiwo Zezinkantolo Eziphangwayo

Inhlangano Ebusayo

Isakhiwo sezinkantolo ze-apellate siyahlukahluka ngokweziphakamiso kodwa ngokuvamile silandela umklamo wombhoshongo oyisikhombi esingumbhoshongo. Engxenyeni yecala kunezinkantolo ezithatha isigwebo; ngaphezulu kwazo kunezinkantolo eziphakathi, futhi phezulu kunezinkantolo eziphakeme kakhulu. Lesisigaba sabefundisi sivumela amazinga amaningi okubukeza, siqinisekisa ukuthi amaphutha angokomthetho angabanjwa futhi alungiswe ngaphambi kokuba isinqumo sibe esokugcina.

Izinkantolo Ezihlolwa Uhulumeni

  • [ Izinkantolo eziphakanyiswayo: Izifundazwe eziningi zinanoma iyiphi inkantolo ephakathi elalela izikhalo ezivela ezinkantolo zokuqulwa kwecala. Izibonelo zihlanganisa iziNkantolo zokudlulisa Amacala zase California ne Izinkantolo zeTexas.
  • Isifundazwe seZinkantolo Eziphakeme: Lezi izinkantolo ezithatha izinyathelo zokugcina ezindabeni zikahulumeni. Ezinye izifundazwe, njenge New York, zibiza iNkantolo yamacala enkantolo ephakeme kakhulu, kuyilapho ezinye, njengoTexas, zinezinkantolo eziphakeme ezihlukene ezindabeni zomphakathi nezezebugebengu.

Izinkantolo Ezihlolwa Ngomaphakathi

  • U.S. izinkantolo zokudlulisa izikhalo: Kunezifunda eziyi 13 (11) zezifunda, i-D.C. isifunda, neFederal zuzu (okusingatha amacala okugunyaza kanye nawohwebo lwezizwe ngezizwe). Isifunda ngasinye sinabahluleli abaningi abezwa amacala ezindawo ezintathu ezahlulelwayo.
  • Inkantolo ePhakeme yase-U.S.: Inkantolo ephakeme kakhulu ezweni, ehlanganisa amajaji ayisishiyagalolunye. Ihlola izinqumo ezithathwe ezinkantolo ze-ampellate ka-hulumeni futhi ishaya izinkantolo eziphakeme uma kuhileleke umbuzo kahulumeni.

Ukukhethwa Kokwahlulela Nokubekwa Kwendawo Yohlu

Amajaji ahlongozwayo amisiwe (amajaji angokomthetho amiswe nguMongameli futhi aqinisekiswe uMkhandlu) noma akhethwe yizimiso zikahulumeni ezithile. Ukuze kusingathwe imithwalo enzima, izikhalo eziningi zizwakala ngamahlulo abahluleli abathathu. Ezimweni ezingavamile, eziphawulekayo cishe lezo ezihilela imibuzo yomthetho-sisekelo noma izinqumo zezindawo eziphikisanayo, inkantolo egcwele ingahlala [ en binc (nabo bonke abahluleli abakhuthele abahlanganyela).

Indima Yezinkantolo Eziza Kuqulwa Icala

Izinkantolo eziphakamisi zifeza imisebenzi eminingi ehlobene. Indima ngayinye ibalulekile ekulondolozeni isimiso somthetho esivumelanayo nesilungile.

Ukubukeza Izinqumo Zenkantolo Ephansi

Izinkantolo ezihlola izinqumo eziphansi ukuze kuqinisekiswe ukuthi izindinganiso ezingokomthetho zisetshenziswa ngokufanele. Lokhu kubukezwa kuqondiswa yizindinganiso zokubukeza ezichaza ukuthi ukuthobeka okukhulu kangakanani okunikezwa inkantolo ephansi. Ngokwesibonelo, imibuzo yomthetho (umz., incazelo ye-state) iyabukezwa [ novo [ukubukeza okusha], kuyilapho la maqiniso ebukezelwe ngokwesiko enziwa ngephutha elisobala [[FLT:]]. Izinqumo ezibonisayo, njengezisobala, zihlolwa [[[FLT]] [FLT]] ukusebenzisa lezindinganiso, i-actal egcina ukulandisa nokulandisa.

Ukumiswa Kwezenzakalo Ezingokomthetho

Enye yemisebenzi ebaluleke kakhulu yezinkantolo ukusungula isibonelo esibophayo somthetho ngemfundiso ye stares decisis (i-Latin lisho “ukuma ngezinto ezinqunyiwe”). Uma inkantolo ekhipha imvume ikhipha umbono onyathelisiwe, ukuthi ukubusa kuyagunyazwa kuzo zonke izinkantolo eziphansi ezingaphansi ezisebusweni bayo. Lokhu kuqinisekisa ukuthi amacala afanayo anqunywe ngendlela efanayo, akhuthaza ukubikezela nokulunga. Ngokwesibonelo, iNkantolo Ephakeme yeSiphendulo sesine kunyatheliswe umbono onyathelisiwe, ukuthi ukumiswa kwemithetho engokomthetho “ukuyeka nokuhlangana kwe-flis", ukuhlangana okumelwe kulandele inkantolo eziphansi.

Ukulungiswa Kwephutha

Izinkantolo, naphezu kwemizamo yazo engcono kakhulu, ngezinye izikhathi zenza amaphutha. Izinkantolo zikhomba futhi zilungise amaphutha angokomthetho, kuhlanganise nokuchazwa kabi komthetho, izinqumo ezisobala, amaphutha ejaji, nokwephula umthetho. Nokho, akuwona wonke amaphutha agunyaza ukuguqulwa. Izinkantolo zisebenzisa iphutha [ elingenacala [[FLT:] indinganiso engokomthetho: uma iphutha lingawuthintanga umphumela wecala, isinqumo senkantolo ephansi singama. Ngokuphambene, inkantolo ephansi ingasebenzisa iphutha elingokomthetho [[[FLT:] [efana nokwenqaba iseluleko]) ifuna ukuguquka.

Ukuchazwa Komthetho

Izinkantolo eziqamba amacala zinikeza izincazelo ezinegunya zezimiso, imithetho, namalungiselelo omthetho. Ngemibono yazo, zicacisa imithetho engaqondakaliyo, zixazulule izingxabano phakathi kwezinkantolo eziphansi, futhi ziphendule imibuzo eqanjiwe yomthetho. Lo msebenzi wokuchaza ukwakheka kwazo zonke izingxenye zomthetho (kusuka emalungelweni omphakathi okwenza isivumelwano somthetho). Ngokwesibonelo, isinqumo seNkantolo Ephakeme Brown v. ibhodi yemfundo [ [1954] yachaza kabusha i-Commote Device Claus protectionsssssssss ukunciphisa ukuvikelwa kwezinhlanga ezikoleni, uphawu olwaguqula umphakathi waseMelika.

Inqubo Yokufuna Ukuzibulala

Ukuqonda le nqubo kusenza sibone ukuthi izinkantolo zisebenza kanjani.

Ukuthola Isaziso Sokukhanga

Le nqubo iqala lapho idili elilahlekile (i- “appellant”) lifaka isaziso sokudlulisa izicelo phakathi nenkathi emisiwe cishe izinsuku ezingu-30 emacaleni kahulumeni. Lokhu kuphawula kubangela ukulungiselelwa kwerekhodi.

Ukulungiselela Umlando

Umabhalane wenkantolo equlwayo uhlanganisa irekhodi eliqukethe zonke izincwadi ezihlobene nalokhu: ukuncenga, ukuthatha isinyathelo, amarekhodi okuqulwa kwecala, imibukiso, nesahlulelo senkantolo ephansi.

Ukuzithoba Kwemibhalo Efushane

Bobabili bafaka imininingwane ebhalwe kafushane. Impikiswano emfushane yomphathi yokuthi kungani inkantolo ephansi yenza iphutha, icaphuna igunya elingokomthetho nezingxenye zalombhalo. I-apelle (iqembu elawina ngezansi) iyaphendula, ivikela isinqumo senkantolo ephansi. U-appellant angafaka impendulo emfushane ukuze aphendule izimpikiswano ezintsha. Ama-fushane ahlelwe kahle futhi ngokuvamile alinganiselwe ngobude (umz., amagama angu-13,000 ezinkantolo zombuso).

Amampikiswano Omlomo

Ezimpindazweni eziningi, inkantolo ihlela izimpikiswano zomlomo lapho abameli benikeza khona izikhundla zabo futhi baphendule imibuzo yabahluleli. Izimpikiswano zomlomo zilinganiselwa ku-15-30 ngemizuzu elandelanayo. Ngokuvamile abaHluleli basebenzisa lesi sikhathi ukuphenya ubuthakathaka empikiswaneni, ukuhlola, noma ukuchaza izinto ezingezona ezizodwa. Nakuba kungezona zonke izikhalo ezihlanganisa izimpikiswano zomlomo (ikakhulu uma abahluleli bevuma ukuthi iziphakamiso zanele), kulokhu kuseyithuba elibucayi lokukholisa.

Isinqumo Nokwaziswa

Ngemva kokucabangisisa, inkantolo ekhipha isigwebo esibhaliwe. Izinqumo zingaba zinyatheliswe futhi zibe yisibonelo esibophayo, noma engakhishwanga[ (ngokuvamile igcinelwe amacala acacile lapho umthetho ukhona futhi akukho simiso esisha esimisiwe). Kwezinye izifunda, imibono engakhishwangasayikhishwa isalingana kodwa ithwala ubunzima obunye obuthonyayo kuphela.

Ukuzwa Okungemthetho

Ngaphambi kokuba isinqumo sibe esokugcina, omunye angase acele n bac ukuqulwa kwecala, lapho bonke abahluleli abakhuthele enkantolo belicabangela khona icala. Lokhu kunikezwa kuphela ezimweni ezingavamile, njengalapho isinqumo sendawo ephezulu singqubuzana nesinqumo esithile noma kuphakamisa umbuzo obalulekile kakhulu. Ukuzwa kwemizwa akuvamile (*)

Izinhlobo Zezinqumo Zenkantolo Eziyoqulwa

Izinkantolo eziqulwayo zinezinketho eziningana lapho zilahla icala. Uhlobo ngalunye lwesinqumo lunemiphumela ehlukile kumaqembu nakumthetho.

  • Ukuqinisekisa: Inkantolo ye-appellate ivumelana nesinqumo senkantolo ephansi futhi ivumele ukuma. Lokhu kwenzeka uma iphutha lingatholakali.
  • Inkantolo ethatha icala iphetha ngokuthi inkantolo ephansi yenza iphutha eliyingozi futhi igumbuqele isinqumo. Ngokwesibonelo, uma inkantolo equlwayo ivuma ukuthi ihemuhemu elingathandeki elicwasa ummangalelwa, ukubuyisela isikhala secala kuyagunyazwa.
  • Ukuhlanganisa:[ Inkantolo ethatha isigwebo ishintsha ingxenye yomyalo wenkantolo ephansi] ngokwesibonelo, ukunciphisa umklomelo womonakalo oweqile (ukushiya konke okusele kungakaguquki).
  • Inkantolo ye-panellate ithumela icala enkantolo ephansi ukuze liphinde lihlolwe ngokuvumelana nombono we-panellate. I-pamand ingayala ukuqulwa kwecala elisha, ukucasuka, noma okunye okutholakele.
  • Vacatur: Inkantolo ekhipha isahlulelo senkantolo ephansi ngokuphelele, ngokuvamile ihambisana ne-remand. Lokhu kungenzeka uma inkantolo ephansi ingenagunya noma uma isikweletu siguqula icala.
  • I-Dismsal:[ Isicelo singalahlwa ngezizathu ezingokwemvelo, njengokungalawuleki, ukungalawuleki, noma ukwehluleka komphathi ukuqulwa icala.

Ukubaluleka Kwezinkantolo Eziza Kuqulwa Icala

Izinkantolo eziqulwayo zibalulekile empilweni yanoma isiphi isimiso somthetho.

Ukuqinisekisa Ubulungisa Nokulungisa Amaphutha

Ngokunikeza indlela yokubukeza, izinkantolo zisebenza njengekhasi lokuphepha emaphutha okwahlulela. Ngisho nasezinkantolo ezikwaziyo ukuqulwa, amaphutha ayenzeka: umahluleli angase athathe umthetho wobufakazi ngokungafanele, ijaji lingase lithathe isinyathelo ngobandlululo, noma umthetho ungaqondwa ngokungeyikho. Ukubukeza amaphutha kuthola futhi kuqinisekise ukuthi abachazi bathola umphumela olungile. Lo msebenzi uqinisa ukuqiniseka komphakathi ukuthi isimiso somthetho siyakwazi ukuzilungisa.

Ukuthuthukisa Ukungaguquguquki Nokubikezelwa

Ngemibono enyathelisiwe nangokubheka, izinkantolo ze-applate zakha indikimba efanayo yomthetho. Amabhizinisi, abantu, kanye nezinhlangano zikahulumeni zingathembela kulezi zenzakalo lapho zihlela ukuziphatha kwazo. Ngokwesibonelo, imithetho ecacile yokuchaza isivumelwano ivumela izinhlangano ukuba zenze izivumelwano ngokuqiniseka, zinciphise ukuqashelwa. Iziphakamiso ezingaguquguquki zivimbela ukuthenga, lapho izinhlangano zingafuna khona umahluleli wezomthetho onobungane.

Ukuvikela Amalungelo Abantu Ngabodwa

Izinkantolo eziphakanyiswayo yizikhundla eziyinhloko zamalungelo omthetho-sisekelo nasemthethweni. Zibukeza izinkulumo ezithi inqubo efanele yenqubo yokuphulwa kwemithetho yezomthetho-sisekelo, ukugxambulwa kwenkululeko, ukuphenywa okungacabangeleki, nezinye izimpikiswano ezisekelwe emalungelweni. Ngaphandle kokubukeza, isinqumo esisodwa secala elinephutha lomahluleli singasusa ngokungafanele isakhamuzi amalungelo aso. I-Landmark amacala aso. Gedeon v. Wainright (ilungelo lokululeka) kanye [[FLT:] imanda v.[FLT] [iright]] [ize]] [ilungile] ukuhlala buthule]).[ikunxusa umthetho waseMelika.[FLT]

Ukuthuthukisa Umthetho

Izinkantolo zokuphanda ziyizinqubo zokuziphendukela kwemvelo okungokomthetho. Njengoba umphakathi ushintsha, kuvela imibuzo emisha engokomthetho njengokusetshenziswa komthetho wemfihlo emininingwaneni ye-teknoloji noma izinga lobumongameli bokuvikela izifo. Imibono inikeza ukuhlaziywa okucaciswe okuqondisa ukubekwa kwezindaba nemithetho esikhathini esizayo. Ngokuphendula izindaba ezinolwazi, iqinisekisa ukuthi umthetho uyaqhubeka usabela ezidingweni zamanje.

Izinselele Ezibhekene Nezinkantolo Eziyoqulwa Icala

Naphezu kwendima yazo ebucayi, izinkantolo ezikhipha isijeziso zibhekana nezithiyo ezinkulu ezingavimbela ukuphumelela kwazo.

Ukucindezela Okugcwele Izifo

Izinkantolo eziphakanyiswayo zisingatha izinkulungwane zamacala unyaka ngamunye. Ngokwesibonelo, izinkantolo zeZikhalo zase-U.S. zathola amafacelo angaphezu kuka-40 000 ngonyaka ka-2023. Lemisebe yezinhlamvu zezincwadi − ahluleli kumelwe bafunde imishwankathi emide namarekhodi, ukucwaninga izindaba zomthetho eziyinkimbinkimbi, nemibono ehleliwe. Ukulawula, izinkantolo eziningi zithembele kubameli futhi zinciphise izimpikiswano zomlomo. Nokho, ukuthweswa kwecala kungaholela ekubambezeleni futhi kunganciphisa ukujula kokuhlaziya ezicabeni ezivamile.

Izindaba Eziyinkimbinkimbi Zezomthetho

Amacala aqanjiwe ngokuvamile ahilela imibuzo eyinkimbinkimbi engokomthetho edinga ubuchwepheshe ezindaweni ezikhethekile njengomthetho osemthethweni, umthetho wokuvimbela ukugcinwa kwezimali, noma umthetho wokuqondisa. Abahluleli kumelwe basheshe bafunde amasimu abangawaziyo ukuze bafinyelele izinqumo zomsindo. Ezinye izifunda, njengeNkantolo Yokudlulisa Amacala yeFederal Frint, ziklanyelwe izindaba ezikhethekile kuphela, kodwa izinkantolo zikahulumeni zisabhekene namajika aphakeme okufunda.

Ukusetshenziswa Komphakathi Nokuhlonishwa

Izinqumo ze-profile ephezulu − ikakhulukazi zeNkantolo Ephakeme yase-U.S.---all zibangela ukuphikisana okukhulu komphakathi. Ukumangalelwa kwezenzo zokwahlulela noma ukwenza izinqumo zohlanga kululaza ukholo ejajini. Nakuba abahluleli abathatha isigwebo beqeqeshelwa ukusebenzisa umthetho ngokungakhethi, umphakathi ngezinye izikhathi ubheka izahlulelo njengezingobe zezombangazwe. Lenselele iyakhula lapho ukumiswa kokwahlulela kuba yingxabano yezombangazwe.

Ukufinyelela Ekulungeni

Ukudlulisa amacala kungaba okubizayo nokukhipha isikhathi. Imali yokudlulisa izikhalo, izindleko zabameli, nesidingo semishwana ebhaliwe kudala izithiyo kubantu abaningi abakhokhelwayo. Ezindabeni zomphakathi, ilungelo lokudlulisa icala likhona ngokuvamile, kodwa ezimweni zobugebengu, uhulumeni unikeza iseluleko kubamangalelwa abamangalelwa abangenwayo ngokusemthethweni kuphela. Ukudlulisa izikhalo zomthetho ezisemthethweni (umzk., enkantolo ephakeme noma enkantolo yase-U.S.) ngokuvamile kudinga isicelo se-certrial, okungaqali kakhulu ukunikezwa yi-Qumrhu Elikhulu.

Isiphetho

Izinkantolo eziphakanyiswayo ziyisisekelo sesimiso somthetho esilungile nesinokwethenjelwa. Ziqinisekisa ukuthi amaphutha angokomthetho ayalungiswa, ukuthi kumiswe futhi kulandelwe izenzakalo, nokuthi amalungelo awedwa avikelekile ekuthatheni isinyathelo sikahulumeni somthetho. Ngokuchaza imithetho nangokuqondisa izinkantolo eziphansi, akhuthaza kokubili ukuvumelana nokuzivelela emthethweni. Kodwa abhekana nezinselele zangempela . /ukuthweswa kwecala eliyinkimbinkimbi, ukungaqiniseki komphakathi, ukukholwa komphakathi, kanye nokuthola imingcele edinga ukunakekelwa nokushintshwa. Ukuqonda umsebenzi wezinkantolo ze-aumelletate kudingekile kunoma yisiphi isakhathi, ummeli, noma ummisi wemithetho ehlonipha ubulungisa, ukulandisa, nokulawula umthetho. Kulelizwe elihlala likhona, lezinkantolo zihlala zihlola amandla abalulekile futhi zinezinhlangothi ezinhlangothini zomthetho.

Ukuze ufunde ngokwengeziwe: bheka U.S. ukucatshulwa kwesimiso se-appelte kahulumeni , i-Cornell Legional Information Institute [, kanye nengxoxo ye- i-American Bar’s ezinkantolo ze-appeltal nentuthuko engokomthetho.