Ekintu Ekisobola Okutuyamba Okusigala nga Tutunula: Ebyafaayo n’Endowooza nti Ebintu Byajjawo Byokka Ebyayamba Omuntu Okwekuuma

Omusingi ogukwata ku kabi ak'emirundi ebiri gwe gumu ku bukuumi obukkirizibwa mu mateeka ga Amerika. Gukakasa nti tewali muntu n'omu ajja kutwalibwa mu ngeri eyo emirundi egisukka mu gumu, bukuumi obwateekebwawo okuziyiza gavumenti okukemebwa, okukuuma ekitiibwa kyayo, era n'okukakasa nti etteeka likomye. Ekitundu kino kiraga emirala egy'amaanyi okuva mu mateeka g'Abangereza aga bulijjo, okuyitira mu ngeri gye gakkirizibwamu mu Amereka agataano, ennyinnyonnyola za leero ezikyakola ku nkyukakyuka mu nkyukakyuka z'amateeka aga bulijjo.

Okutegeera akabi emirundi ebiri kwetaagisa eri buli omu eyeekenneenya enkola z'abamenyi b'amateeka mu Amerika, amateeka gaamunnyi, oba eddembe omuntu ly'alina. Tekiri nkola eya bulijjo naye enjigiriza entuufu nti kkooti zikozesezza ku nsonga empya, okuva ku nkyukakyuka n'okusikirizibwa okugatta eb'eggwanga n'okugatta abafuzi. Bwe twekenneenya ebyafaayo byazo n'enjigiriza ez'enjigiriza, tutegeera engeri amateeka gye gatuukirizaamu ebigendererwa by'abantu okugonjoola obumenyi bw'amateeka okusobola okugonjoola obweyamongo n'eddembe ery'okutaagoobw'okutaagobererwa.

Ensibuko y’Amateeka g’Olungereza

Endowooza ey'okussa obulamu mu kabi ak'emirundi ebiri teyatandikibwawo okuva ku ntandikwa y'Amerika. Olunyiriri lw'olunyiriri lw'obuzaale lwayo lweyolekera ddala mu Mangalisikirano, gye kyavangamu endowooza nti omuntu tasaanidde kutwalibwa olw'ekibi kye kimu emirundi ebiri oluvannyuma lw'okukaabiranya wakati w'obuyinza bwa kabaka n'entuufu z'obuwangwa bwa bulijjo. Ebyogezo ebyasooka tebyakolebwa mu Bungereza byatandikamu nga olukusa olw'okuvunaanibwa , ne olufulumya olufuluma lw'aze], ne kikkiriza omuwayiribwa (yalina omusango]) okuvunaanibwa muwaamu olw'okubiri nga kiraga nti baali bamaze okusalirwa ku kiragiro kye kimu.

Ekyasa ekya kkumi n'omusanvu we kyatuukira, etteeka ery'Abangereza lyakulaakulanya amateeka amazibu agakwata ku kabi ak'emirundi ebiri, wadde nga teryali k'awaliwo. Okuwozesebwa kwa Sir Thomas More mu 1535, kwalaga obusobe bw'omusingi bwe gwagonjoolebwa mu byobufuzi nga bya ddokooti. Wadde kyali kityo, ensobi yatwalanga obusika obw'enkalakkalira mu Bungereza, nga mw'otwalidde n'okukakasa Magna Carta nti tewali muntu wa ddembe yandibonereddwa okuggyako nga bavunnaanye mu mateeka. Abatunzi bannabyabufuzi bwe baasomoka Atlantik, baatwalanga obulombolombo buno obw'amateeka.

Amerika ng’Omukago n’Omutemu ogw’Okutaano

Kyokka, amatwale ga mirundi ebiri ag'obukuumi gaaliwo okuyitira mu mateeka agatali gamu mu kifo ky'okuwandiika bukwasiddwa amateeka.

Oluvannyuma lwa Nkyukakyuka eyo, eggwanga eriggya lyalina omulimu ogw'okuzimba gavumenti eyalimu obufuzi obwabalibwa. Bill of Rights, eyakkirizibwa mu 1791, yalina ekigendererwa eky'okuwaliriza gavumenti eyo. Enkyukakyuka ey'okutaano erimu ekitundu eky'akabi eky'emirundi ebiri mu sentensi yaayo esembayo: "Tewali muntu n'omu alikkirizibwa okuteeka obulamu bw'omuntu mu kabi kokka emirundi ebiri." Ebigambo bino byasibuka butereevu ku mateeka ga Bungereza aga bulijjo, naye amakulu gaabyo gaatwalanga ebyasa by'asatu ebikumi bibiri mu lukalala olw'olupapula olwo okusobola okunnyonnyola obulungi ensonga eyo.

Kikulu nnyo okumanya nti ebigambo ebyakozesebwanga mu lukalala olw'akabi ak'emirundi ebiri mu kusooka byali bikwata ku gavumenti y'eggwanga. Ofissi eyo yatandika kukwata ekifo kino mu mwaka gwa 1969. Benton ne [Maryland]. Kkooti enkulu () kyeyavamu ebigambo ebyo okumenya amateeka okuyitira mu Amereka ak'ekkumi n'enamu. Ekiragiro ekyo kyasobozesa obukuumi obwo okuba obwa buli kisobose mu Amerika, ne bweyongera nnyo okutuuka ku biruubirirwa byabwo.

Enjigiriza z’Eby’Etteeka n’Emisango Ebikulu

Enjigiriza y’Abafuzi ab’Enjawulo

Ekimu ku bisinga okuleetawo enkaayana nga `/a' kwe'. Wansi w'etteeka lino, gavumenti y'ensi n'eggwanga bitwalibwa nga byawukanya. N'olwekyo, ekikolwa kimu ekimenya amateeka ga gavumenti n'aga gavumenti kiyinza okusalibwawo ab'obuyinza awatali kuteekawo kabi konna. Kkooti enkulu ekakasa omusingi guno mu United States v. Lanza (120]) (1922) era n'oluvannyuma mu Bartkus v. Illinonia] (1959) n'[FLT]]

Ekituufu kiri nti ekikolwa kye kimu kiyinza okutegeeza ebibi bibiri eby'enjawulo ku biwayi bibiri eby'omu mateeka. Abavumirira Baibuli bagamba nti kino kiyinza okuviirako okunyigiriza bannaabwe mu nsonga nga ziddiriŋŋana, naddala mu nsonga enkulu. Kkooti enkulu era yaddamu okuggumiza enjigiriza eyo mu Ggash v. United States (2029) nga eteeka essira ku ku kussawo akabonero akadesi nga kayo kak'enkola, wadde nga k'okukulaze nti k'okukayitako kwagala k'okugireka.

Engeri z’Okwambala mu Ngeri Embi

Okwewala akabi ak'emirundi ebiri kutandika singa okusazesebwa kw'abalamuzi kuba kugattiddwako. Okusala omusango, okugwa mu kabi, era n'okulayira bwe kusalibwawo abalamuzi. Obukuumi obwo bukwataganyizibwa n'obujulizi obwasooka bwe bulayirizibwa. Ekiseera kino kiyinza okusinziza oba okugaana omusango ogwokubiri.

Mu [[NKULU:0] Crist v. Bretz [788]), kkooti enkulu yagamba nti etteeka erikwata ku busimba lya gavumenti likola kye kimu nga liyitira mu nteekateeka ey'ekkumi n'enaana. Ku kusalawo kuno kukakasa nti kyeyisa kikwatagana mu kunnyonnyola ekiseera ekizibu we kiyinza okweyungirira akakongo ak'emirundi ebiri.

Obulimba n’Engeri ez’Okukoleramu

Kiki ekibaawo singa omusango gukomezebwa olw'ensonga enkyamu oba singa omuwawawaayibwa n'awangula obutuufu? Eby'okuddamu bisobola okuddibwamu. Omuwawawayirwa ayinza okuddibwamu oluvannyuma lw'okunoonyereza obubi singa omulamuzi ayisa omusango mu bukyamu olw'okuteekawo "obuzibu"". Akakiiko akawaabirwa kalina kye kakolawo nga akalaga nti akakiiko k'abalamuzi akaasalirwako akaasalibwako akaamenyeseteebwa tek'amenyese. [FLT] United States v. Perez (11824], Kkooti ekkooti enkulu yatwala nti olukiiko olukulu k'abalamuzi k'asaliddwa ng'ekyambiddwa k'ekye kyakulabirako ekyeyoleka bulungi, era nga terukkiriza kuddamu kukola kimenyawo kya buli kiseera.

Naye singa omuwaabi agezaako okuwozesa omusango mu bugenderevu asobole okugukomya, omusango guyinza okusazesebwa. Ogon v. Kennedy[192]], kkooti yateekawo ebbanga erisingako engo: omuwaabi bw'akola nga ayagala okusoosa omusango, era kino kiyinza okuteeka embeera ey'okubiri mu kabi.

Omuwawawawa bwe yeeyisa ng'ajulira obujulizi obutuufu n'awangula, etteeka liragira nti okuzza omusango mu nkomerero kujja kukomya ng'akabi tekakomye. Kyokka, Ekiragiro kya 'L' kigaana okutongoza oba nga kkooti ewaanyisa ewandikibwe tewakakasa bujulizi bumala okuwagira ensala ya muwawanya. Burks v. United States [1997]]] [1978]), olukiiko olwo lwagamba nti okuzza obujulizi obumala kyenkana obujulizi obumala bwenkanankana n'okuggyawo, bwe buwatyo obujulizi obwa nnamba obubagirwamu. Enjawulumu eno eyongera ku kuteeka ku kujulizi z'abamu.

Okubonerezebwa Emirundi Mingi n’Okugezesebwa

Olukalala lw'abateeberezebwa olw'ensobi ebbiri era luziyiza ebibonerezo ebiwerako. Ekibuuzo ekikulu kiri nti, singa etteeka liba lilina obujulizi obulaga ebibi ebibi bibiri by'abamenyi b'amateeka bye bimu oba bya njawulo. Kkooti enkulu yassaawo ekigezo eky'omutindo mu ttuluba trner v. United States [1932]]: singa etteeka lyonna liba lilina obujulizi obw'ekintu ekimu, nga buli tteeka lirina obujulizi obulaga nti ky'owagguzi, olwo lwokkasiddwawo, era ne ekibonerezo ekiwerako kikkirizibwa. Ekiragiro etteeka ekimu bwe kiba nga kizingiramu ekibi eky'okubiri ekimenyeddwa.

Kyokka, kkooti era emanyi nti singa kiba kituufu okuyisa obubi omuntu oyo mu ngeri y'emu nga bagoberera amateeka ag'enjawulo, kiba kitegeeza nti akkiriza okubonerezebwa okwawukana.

Plea Lagains n’Okweteeka mu Kabi

Omusango ogusinga obungi gugonjoolebwa okuyitira mu kugattika obusawo obugambi, so si kuwozesebwa. Akatyabaga ak'emirundi ebiri kakuuma omuwawaayiri oyo avunaanibwa omusango? Okusinziira ku mulundi guno, okusaba okw'omusango kuba kulina kukakasibwa, era okunenya oba okunoonyereza kuyinza okuba kutono. Rickets v. Adamson[[FLL:1] [1987]], kkooti ekkiriza nti omuwayizzi bw'amenya endagaano ayinza okukkirizibwa okukkirizibwa mu n'ewayitisibwa mu kusooka, wadde nga endagaano eyo yali ekendeddeko. Kino kiraga nti okukomya okusaba kuyinza okuba nga kuyinza kuba kwalina kye kikola.

Obunene obulala bwe bukulu bw'etteeka erikugira omuwawaabirwa okubonerezebwa olw'enkola y'emu mu ngeri eyeeyawudde. Ng'ekyokulabirako, omuntu bw'aggibwako omusango, tayinza kusalirwa musango mungiko. Etteeka eryo lyateekebwawo lukumbo olumu mu okigid. United States [1957] [197], olugamba nti omuntu avunaanibwa omusango ku nzijuvu ennene ennyo.

Okunnyonnyola okw’Omu Kiseera Kino n’Enkaayana Eziliwo mu Kiseera Kino

Okusasula Empeera n’Empeera

Ekimu ku bifo ebisinga okuwakanyizibwa mu mateeka ag'omu kiseera kino kwe kuba nti okufiirwa ebintu ebyakozesebwa mu nkola z'obumenyi bw'amateeka oba ebirala ebitali bya lukalala kiyinza okuba ekibonerezo eky'okubiri. Mu United States v. Ursery [1996]], kkooti enkulu yagamba nti okufiirwa ebintu ebikozesebwa mu nkola y'obuzzi tekiyinza kuleetera bantu kuteeka mu kabi ak'emirundi ebiri. Ekyo kyasalawo okumalirira mu kkooti entono, naye abawakanyisiikiriza bagamba nti okufiirwa ebintu bya gavumenti kuyinza okukolebwako nga bifeezesebwa, naddala singa omuwendo gw'ebintu ebiba biyiiriddwako ogutayinza kuvaamu akabi ak'amaanyi.

Mu ngeri y'emu, okubonerezebwa kwa nkola nga layisensi ezitongozebwa oba okuggibwa ku ndagaano za gavumenti okutwaliramu ekibonerezo tekitwalibwa ng'ekibonerezo olw'okubonereza abantu olw'ensobi emirundi ebiri, ne bwe kiba nti bagoberera obujulizi obubavunaanibwa olw'enneeyisa y'emu. Kkooti ekozese ebipimo ebisukka mu binene okusobola okwawulawo ebivume ku nkola y'ekitongole n'eky'abamenyi b'amateeka, nga essa essira liba ku obanga okutongozebwa okwo kutuukiriza enzirowo n'etajja kubonero.

Okuyuza Omubiri n’Okukosebwa Ebbiri

Okussa mu nkola eby'okusala emisango gy'abavubuka mu ngeri ey'enjawulo kyayawukanira ddala. 'Breed v'. Jones (1975], kkooti enkulu yagamba nti okubonerezebwa kw'abaana mu bujeemu kitegeeza "empaka" etegeeza nti oluvannyuma abamenyi b'amateeka okusibibwa obwetwaze bwe bumu. Kkooti yagamba nti okufiirwa eddembe mu misango gy'abavubuka kiba kya kabi nnyo ne kiba nga tekikkirizibwa kutuukiriza bukuumi emirundi ebiri. Omusango guno gulina kye gukola okusobola okumanya eddembe erya bulijjo erikwata ku bavubuka.

Okunozesa Engeri y’Engeri y’Okukangavvula n’Emirala Egikwata ku Kusalawo Okugattululwa

Ekiragiro kino kikakasa nti gavumenti teyinza kuteekawo bujulizi obulaga omusango ogw'amaanyi okusinziira ku nzikiriza ezaaliwo nga tezinnabaawo.

Enkyukakyuka Eziyinza Okubaawo

Enjigiriza eyo eyawukana ku y'ekyasinze okuvumibwa ennyo mu mateeka ag'emirundi ebiri aga bulijjo. Omulamuzi Ginsburg, awakanya Ggagger v'. United States, agamba nti enjigiriza eyo efeebya omuwendo gw'obuteebeezesebwa olw'okuba ekkiriza gavumenti okuleka omuntu okuba "n'omumenyi w'amateeka agamu" ng'eyawulamu obuyinza wakati wa gavumenti z'ensi ne gavumenti. Gavumenti ezimu zigezeeko okukoba nga zikomya enjigiriza eyo ku mateeka, naye amateeka ga gavumenti gaagobeetaa.

Ekirala eky'okukaayana kye kimu ku ebyo ebiragibwa nga "Obufuzi obw'obutonde bwonna" so ng'ate gavumenti bbiri teziwandiise butereevu ekyo, kooti entono zikozesezza enkola y'emu ez'obufuzi okuleka gavumenti okusibibwa mu mateeka olw'ekikolwa kye kimu. Kino kiyinza okuleetawo ensonga ez'enjawulo era ne kyongera okubuuza ensonga mu ngeri eyoleka obwenkanya naddala singa gavumenti zikola enteekateeka mu kunoonyereza.

Endowooza Abantu mu Nsi Yonna Gye Balina ku Bikwatako

Ekiragiro kino kiwa obulagirizi bungi ku kabi ak'emirundi ebiri. Ensi nnyingi nga mw'otwalidde Canada ne United Kingdom, tezigoberera enjigiriza eya zabwe ku bwabwe. Mu European Union, omusingi gwa biss mu drom, gulina okuguggulawo olukuuti olw'okubiri olw'ensonga y'emu ng'ensi yonna eteekeddwawo. Mu Amerika esigala nga yeyongedde okukkirizibwa okukkirizisa abakkirizi b'obuyinza, ekintu ekireeteezza entegeka ez'enjawulo okuva ku ddembe ly'abantu n'abayivugizza obutuufu.

Okutegeera enkola zino ez'ensi yonna kiyinza okutegeeza enkyukakyuka mu mateeka ga Amereka. Abeekenneenya abamu ab'amateeka abamu bawa etteeka eryandibakkulidde gavumenti oluvannyuma lw'okusiba olukumbo olumu mu kkooti z'eggwanga singa errowoozo tezibeera za maanyi nnyo. Abalala bawagidde nti Kkooti Enkulu erina okufuga beggigger v. United States era bagambye nti akatyabaga ak'emirundi ebiri kennyini kaziyiza okuwerezebwa obutereevu mu mateeka.

fundikira

Olufulube lw'emisango ebiri teruliiko kabi konna mu nkola y'amateeka ga Amerika. Gaziyiza gavumenti okukozesa eby'obugagga bwayo ebingi okukoowa abo ababawawaanyizibwa mu kugezesebwa enfunda n'enfunda, era gawa empagi z'emisango enzijjuvu, era ganywerera ku musingi nti omuntu tateekwa kuwalirizibwa okuddamu okuttibwa. Kyokka nga bwe kiragiddwa mu kitundu kino, olukalala olwo si luba lubako ekkomo.

Eri abayizi era n'abasomesa b'amateeka agafuga amateeka, obutyabaga bwawa obuwerako obuwerako okunoonyereza ku ngeri empanvu eyinza okusobozesa ebiwandiiko ebifunze eby'okunnyonnyola amakulu g'ebiwandiiko bya mateeka. Empandiika wakati w'obwesigwa mu byafaayo, obwetaavu, n'endowooza ez'obwenkanya zikyaliwo nga zikola ku nsonga z'enjigiriza. Enkola empya ez'okusibawo ensonga.. Nga bwe kiri nti, okusala emisango ku gavumenti oba okukolagana n'ebiwandiiko bya gavumenti, kkooti zijja kusembezebwa okutereeza ensalo zino omulundi gumu.

Mu nkomerero, obukuumi obw'emirundi ebiri tebuba bufuze bulaga nti omuntu yeemalirira nnyo mu gavumenti enjereere. Bukakafu bulaga nti gavumenti bw'emaze okufuna omukisa gwayo gwonna okulaga nti evunaanibwa omusango, eteekwa okugwetongola. Obweyamo obwo bukyali bwa mugaso nnyo leero nga bwe kyali mu kiseera nga Omuteesi ogw'Okutaano gusoose okukolebwa.

  • Okumanya ebisingawo ebikwata ku mateeka agaayonoona emirundi ebiri, laba [[NT] Connell Empukusa ey'Eby'amateeka ku kabi ak'emirundi ebiri.
  • Kkooti enkulu esalawo ku [[:0][[AK'AMUTANDIKI]] Gergey v. United States[[KATANDIKA:2] [2029] Kino kiwa kyogerwako mu bujjuvu ku njigiriza ekwata ku nnamba ez'enjawulo.
  • Ekiragiro [[NKUMBO] Akawayiro akaleetera olukalala lw'ebibamba ebikubisaamu emirundi ebiri okuteekako akabenje, oluwandika olw'obusobozi obw'okukubisaamu obubonero obukola nga otaddewo akabonero ak'emirundi ebiri lukusobozesa okufuna enkumbo entuufu.
  • Okwekenneenya emisingi gy'okugwa ku kabi ak'emirundi ebiri mu nsi yonna kiyinza okusangibwa mu Deuke Journal of Preferative & International Law Ekitundu "Ne Bis in International Law".