Enjigiriza eno ewa byuma ebifuga gavumenti n'esobola okukuuma gavumenti z'ensi ne bamemba baleme okuwerebwa mu kkooti ya gavumenti nga tebakkiriza. Bizineesi n'abantu kinnoomu abakolagana, abakolera awamu oba ababa bakoseddwa ebitongole bya gavumenti, byewawa b'enkyukakyuka mu ngeri enneekusifu. Enjigiriza eno eraga nti obutongole bwa gavumenti busobola okuzirinamu. SOES mu kifo eky'enjawulo eky'omu mateeka; bakola emirimu gy'eby'obusuubuzi egikolebwa bannabizineesi naye nga bakuuma amateeka ga gavumenti. Okugoba gavumenti ne gavumenti okugattira ku mateeka gaagna, n'obukuumi mu mateeka, n'obugunjukubuzi obwetakkirizibwa okukola.

Obumu mu Kkanisa y’Omufuzi w’Obufuzi bwa Gavumenti

Enjigiriza ey'omu kiseera kino egamba nti abantu tebasobola kwetongola eva mu mateeka mu kiwandiiko eky'ekkumi n'ekikumi ekitongozesebwa mu Amerika, ekyakkirizibwa mu 1795. Ekiwandiiko ekyo kyalondebwa mu mwaka gwa 1795. Ekiwandiiko ekyo kyakkirizibwa okukkirizibwa nga bwe kyali kimaze okukkirizibwa ku kkooti ey'oku ntikkulu ennyo ewa gavumenti y'ensi yonna ewandikiddwa, nga kitegeeza nti ensala y'emisango eya 141 ewanikiddwa, era nti gavumenti y'eggwanga lya gavumenti terina kuleeta masusiro eri abatuuze mu ggwanga eddala oba ebitali lya ggwanga lya ggwanga lya njawulo.

Wadde nga wabaddewo ebyawandiikibwa bino ebitonotono, kkooti enkulu etwala embaga ey'okusamba ng'ebeera n'omusingi omugazi ogw'okwefuga. ] Hans v. Louisiana (190), kkooti yagamba nti okugaana okwo nakwo kukkirizibwa kukkirizibwa batuuze ba gavumenti. Oluvannyuma, mu SOURTLE [FLT] era ne mu [FOLT], (1996], kkooti yanyweza enjigiriza eyo nga ekkiriza nti Constantstion tesobola kukozesa kibiina kya Cream (ekifaananako Claus Claus) mu ku bukuumi bw'eggwanga. Ebyo ebyasalibwa mu kkooti zino byombi biraga nti obutebenkenkevu y'obufuzi, obufuga ensonga ezo zombi zifuga ensonga ezo zombi.

Obukuumi buno tebuliiko kkomo, naye buleetawo ekizibu ekirina okuggibwawo mu maaso ga kkooti, era nga kiyinza okusobozesa omuntu okuwulira ebirungi ebiva mu musango oguvunaanibwa SOE.

Okunoga kw'abangi bannasayansi n'obungi bwa kompyuta bitegekebwe: "Arm of the State"

Ekibuuzo ekikulu ekijjawo mu nteekateeka yonna ezingiramu gavumenti okwetongoza ekiwandikiro, kwe kuba nti ekiwandikiro ekyo kituukiriza ebisaanyizo by'okufuga mu ggwanga." ku bw'okifuula ekitundu kya gavumenti, ekikitwala nga omukono gwa SOE, kisikira obukuumi obwa gavumenti. Singa kitwalibwa nga kampuni oba ekitongole ekya wansi mu bya bufuzi, tekifuna bukuumi bwa kuweza kkumi na kikumi ku Amereka, wadde nga kino kiyinza okuba n'obukuumi obulala wansi w'amateeka ga gavumenti.

Kkooti zikola ekisinziirwako okukebera obanga ekintu kibeera kigattidwa mu mukono gwa gavumenti. Ekisinga obukulu kwe kuba nti ye yasasulira omusango[. Bwe kiba nti ebifisseewo bisobola okusasulwa okuva mu ggwanika, kiyinza okuba nga tekirina bukuumi bwa gavumenti. Ebintu ebirala ebikulu bizingiramu:

  • Ekintu ekifuga entegeka ya Ekikongojjedwa mu kigambo ekifuga entegeka ya puloguramu era n'engeri omulimu gye gukolebwamu.
  • [[AKMENTI] Awandibadde Amateeka ga gavumenti:[[Aka 'FUZI'] Amateeka g'empandika' gannyonnyola atya ekiwandikiro (e.g., nga ekitongole kya gavumenti oba nga enkozesa eya kyewa).
  • [[Act:0] Ensibuko y'omulimu:[[[NKUMBO:1] Ka kibe nti ssente ezikozesebwa mu mulimu gwa ssemazinga ezikozesebwa mu mulimu gwa gavumenti zisobola okusasulibwa oba nga zikoleddwamu emirimu egigisobozesa okufuna ssente ezisinga obungi.
  • [[Akawayiro:0]Purpose:[[=AK'AWULA] Bwe kiba nga kigoberera omulimu gwa gavumenti oba omulimu gwayo gwonna, omulimu kwe gukoma oba omulimu gwa kompyuta.

Mu hess v. Port Authority Trans-Hudson Corp. [1994], kkooti enkulu yakiggumiza nti wadde waliwo ensonga eziwerako ezikwata ku nsonga, "stin] ezikwata ku by'obugagga n'okukuuma ekitiibwa kya gavumenti. Ebintu ebikola nga bizineesi, ebiyinza okuteeka ssente mu nzijaka y'eggwanga mu nzivuunvu n'empandika tebiriko buzibu ku bukuumi. Kyokka, ebibiina ebifugibwa gavumenti era ne byeyisa mu by'obusuubuzi bisobola okukuuma ebiruubirirwa ebyabyo.

Engeri Omufuzi w’Obumu gy’Akosaamu Omuntu ng’Omwagalwa w’Abatuuze

Omuntu bw'aba yeetongodde, ebiva mu kugattibwa kw'ekika ekyo biba bya maanyi nnyo. Kkooti ya gavumenti terina buyinza bwa munnakyewa ku mukutu ogwo, nga kitegeeza nti ensonga eyinza okusaanyizibwawo ku ntandikwa y'olukiiko olusooka nga wansi w'obuyinza 12(b)(1)(1) obw'e Bulambo bwa Federal Reslars of Civil Procedendure. Okugoba gavumenti emirundi egisinga obungi kuba kwa busosoze, ne kiviirako omuteesosoze obutayingira mu kkooti y'amateeka.

Kino kitera okugambibwa nti abantu ba SOE, nga mw’otwalidde ne:

  • [[Act:0] Ekiragiro kino kitandika n'okuyingiza kkopi ey'ekika kya Contract:[[[KA]] SOE eremedwa okusasula omusuubuzi oba endagaano ezitakkirizibwa ku kiwandiiko kiyinza obutakkirizibwa kuweebwa sutifoomu ku ebyo ebiba bigobeddwa.
  • [[AK'AMUT:0] Ennamba ziyinza okugaana omuntu okufuna ekiwundu olw'obulagajjavu bw'omukozi SOOKA okusobola okusasulwa.
  • Kkonsitimati (42.C.E. 76):[ Ekiragiro kino tekisobola kuvunaana kaweefube oba okuvunaanibwa obubenje bw'essente mu kkooti y'ensi eyo olw'okumenya eddembe ly'amateeka.
  • [[AK:0] O'obwawula obusosoze:[[NKULA] Obubonero wansi wa Amerika obuliko akakwakkulizo akawere oba ADA'Aspeal Act mu nkola y'omulimu (ADEA) buyinza okukoma ku kukugira okukuba ekiwayi eky'amaanyi ekikolebwako karganization.

Eby’Okulwanyisa Ebireetebwawo n’Ebizibu Ebiba Bizzeewo

Wadde nga waliwo abantu bangi abasobola okulwanyisa obwetwaze, waliwo engeri nnyingi abakungu ba gavumenti ze bakwata nga bawakanya amakolero aga gavumenti.

Okutongozebwa kw’Ekizimbe mu Kitundu 5 eky’Omutemu ogw’Ekkumi n’Ekkumi n’Ennya

Wadde nga gavumenti teyinza kuziyiza buwangwa buleme kukwatibwa wansi w'Akatundu I, kasobola okuteekebwa wansi w'ekitundu 5 ku Muteeso ogw'ekkumi n'ena. FATRINGrick v.[[FLT:][19]], kkooti yagamba nti olw'okuba olukusa olw'ekkumi n'enamba lwategekebwa okukomya obufuzi, Consentiration esobola okukomya enteekateeka zaayo nga empanyisss ez'okuleka empandika ez'ebyobufuzi. Okusobola okuzikolako, Congress ekiwandikiro kirina okusooka (1) okukireetera ebrowo ddala "mutakkulusibwa mu nnyiriri ez'ekiragiro, ne (2) kikolera mu kifo ekya waggulu eky'okuteekawo obukwasigibwa.

Kkooti eno ekiraze bulungi engeri abo abagikola gye bakkirizibwamu. Ng'ekyokulabirako, mu tesseev. Lane (2004), kkooti yawagira okusalwa kw'olukiiko olw'okunaana kwa ADA ku bikwata ku kufuuka omuwagizi mu kkooti. Kyokka, mu ], okukolagana kwa Alaba engeri gye kusobola okuyisibwa mu Alaba olukalala lwa Alabamalma v. Garrett (2001), kkooti yakubatiisawo omutwe ogukwata ku mutwe IDAA (okusososolwa olw'omulimu), era n'okuzuula nti akakiiko akalaga obusosoze mu by'eggwanga. Bwe kiba nti akakiiko akabereberye kalina okulabika obulungi, akalaga olukalala kajja mu ngeri ekkiriza okubaamu enkola ey'okukkula okuva ku nsonga eyo, kiyinza okubaamu.

Expanded [[Act:0] Enjigiriza: Abakungu ba gavumenti okwesamba obuweerero obuvaako

Ekimu ku bintu eby'amaanyi ebiremesa okweyambisa etteeka ery'okwefuga kwe kuyigiriza okw'ekika ekimu Ex Young. Enjigiriza eno yatandikibwawo mu 1908, ekkiriza ekiwagizi okuvunaana omukungu mu kkooti y'eggwanga okusobola okukugira okumenyebwa amateeka ga gavumenti. Omukungu mu mateeka agimenya si y'ensonga, era bwe kityo, ekitongole eky'ekkumi n'ekkumi n'omusanvu tekikola ku lw'eggwanga.

Kino kikulu nnyo singa wabaawo okutongoza eddembe ly'abantu, amateeka agakwata ku mbeera z'obutonde, era singa omuntu asalawo okukomya enkola ye mu kifo ky'okuggyawo ebisasulwa. Ng'ekyokulabirako, omukungu ayinza okusiikiriza omutwe gw'eddwaliro mu gavumenti (ya SOE) okukomya ekikolwa ekimenya amateeka g'ensi. Kyokka, enjigiriza tekkiriza kubaako kye kiwayawo olw'obuyambi obw'emabega, ng'ebbeesaawo oba ekisasusse mu biseera eby'emabega.

Eby’Okweyama n’Ebizimbe Ebizimba

Gavumenti oba endagaano eyinza okulemesa omuntu okulwanyisa endwadde oba okukkiriza okuzikolako. Ekiragiro kino kiteekwa okuba "create era nga tekkirizi". Ssaintoney'eggwanga liyinza okuyisa etteeka eritakkiriza kukolamu bintu ebimu ebiyinza okukkirizibwa, gamba nga kontulakiti eziba ziwagidde enkola ya yunivasite oba okuwakana ebiva mu kukolera mu mmotoka za gavumenti.

Eggwanga abamu bataddewo ekirango eky'ekika kya Tort eky'okugaana obuteefiirayo nga bagamba nti ebisawo ebiba bikendedde biremedwa, wadde nga bitera okusasuza ebisasifu ku kigero ekitono. Okugatta ku ekyo, SOE eggyawo omusango okuva mu kkooti y'eggwanga okugenda mu kkooti y'eggwanga eyinza okutwalibwa ng'ewaze ensonga eyo, nga bwe kiragiddwa mu Lapides v. Board of Regents of Georgia

Era abagoba amateeka balina okwekenneenya ekiwandiiko oba etteeka eryateekebwawo SOE.

Okuwaayirizibwa kw’E kkooti y’Ettaka

Ebiwandiiko eby'ekkumi n'omubiri ebitongozeddwa ku Amereka tebiri mu kkooti ya gavumenti, naye tebiringa bsaze mu kkooti z'eggwanga. Leeteero eyinza okunnyonnyola obunene bw'etteeka eririna okugaanira ddala eddembe ery'okwefuga mu kkooti y'eggwanga.

Kino kya njawulo kya maanyi. Wadde nga Erie Railroup Co. v. Tompkins (1938), kkooti z'ensi egoberera amateeka ag'enjawulo zigoberera amateeka g'ensi. Kyokka, entegeka ey'ekkumi n'etaano eremenga okuwulira omusango gwa gavumenti ne guba nga guwandikiddwa mu mateeka. N'olwekyo, etteeka ery'eggwanga liteekwa okuzikuuma nga teriiko kakwate eririna kuziggula. Ebiwandikiro bingi bireme okuzikuuma nga bikulu okusinga omutindo ogufuga, n'olwekyo, amateeka ga gavumenti galina okukeberebwa obulungi.

Omusango Ogufuga Byonna mu Kibiina (FSIA) Gulina Enjawulo ya Kika kya Bannaggwanga

Kikulu okwawulawo kampuni ez'omu nsi ne kampuni eza gavumenti ennazo. Mu ngeri eyo, ab'obuyinza ku port efugibwa gavumenti mu New Jersey bafugibwa ebitongole ebigoberera enkola ya pejansi ya AMERIKA (mu ngeri eyo, 1, 1, ekitongole kya gavumenti ekikola ku ttantaneti) kifugibwa enkola ya Saudi Arabia ekikolera mu by'obusuubuzi mu U.S..

'FSIA' mu kiikabuleerwa y'Amerika era ewa anti ekitongole ekifuga engeri gye kiddukanyaamu pulogulamu mu by'obusuubuzi. Omuwaabi wa gavumenti omutali kifo kya ggwanga kiyinza okugaana abo abawaabirwa mu kkooti ez'enjawulo ez'omu nsi endala. Omukungu akiraze nti mu Amerika aleme okumenya endagaano ey'eby'obusuubuzi. Omukungu atera okukomyawo SOE mu ggwanga okukidduukirirwa mu ngeri y'emu naye nga SOOMIZO atwalibwa munnaggwanga atwalibwa mu kiwayinja ky'ekitongole ekitali kikkiriza okukimenti.

Enkola n’Ebikungo ebya Kaseti

Kkooti ey’oku ntikko ekyetongodde esigalako, era okusalawo okwakakolebwa gye buvuddeko awo kukendeeza ku ngeri gavumenti gy’eyinza okulwanyisaamu obwetwaze.

Mu Pennn East Pipeline Co. v. New Jersey (2021), kkooti yagamba nti gavumenti eyinza okuwa kampuni enfuga obuyinza bwayo era nti amaanyi gano gayinza okusumulula gavumenti mu kifo kyazo eky'okwefuga. Kkooti yagamba nti gavumenti z'Amerika bwe zikozesa amateeka gaazo okuzisalira omusango, gavumenti ne ziwaayo obusobozi bwazo mu "plan of Convention". Etteeka lino lissa ku nsonga z'eby'eby'obuyinza ku bufuga.

Mu Torres v. Department of Public Safety [202]), kkooti yayisa ekikolobero ekifaananako nga "structural auser" n'enjigiriza ku kkomo erikwata ku ddembe ly'abakwasiddwa aba dduyiro oba Respourment Rights Active Act (USTERRA). Kkooti eyo yagamba nti Texas teyalina bukuumi okuva ku musserooti eyaleetebwa omuko w'omuwabuzi owa gavumenti wansi wa MUKOZESA, kubanga gavumenti y'obuyinza ku bukuumi bw'eggwanga n'ebyamagye byetaagisa gavumenti okukkiriza obuwadumbi obuvunaanyizibwa buno.

Ebyokulabirako bino biraga engeri eyinza okukolebwa: wadde nga mu biseera eby'edda ennyo tewakyaliwo butaka bwa maanyi olw'enkaayana ezikolebwa ku by'obusuubuzi, kiyinza okuba eky'obuzibu singa gavumenti emenya amateeka agafuga amateeka g'ensi yonna nga okulwanyisa obutuuze oba amateeka agafuga eby'obusuubuzi mu bitundu eby'enjawulo, nga gassa essira ku mirimu gya lukale n'okukubaala. Abagoba b'eby'okulwanyisa ebiwangwa baleme okusaasaanyizibwawo oba "Ebitebek'ebitundu ebitegekebwa mu n'ebyamasaza.

Ebigula by’Obwannamunigina

Nga tebannavala nsawo eziwakanya ekibiina ekitwalibwa okuba kampuni y'eggwanga, bannamateeka balina okukola ebiwandiiko ebikugisaamu ebiba bitegekeddwa nga tennaba kutandika kunoonyereza:

  1. [[NKUMBO:0] Obutebenkevu bw'ekifo ky'ekifo: Gekazirawo engeri gye kifugamu ekitundu kino. Gezaako okwekenneenya entegeka y'ekitongole, enkola ey'okuwagiramu ssente, n'enkola ez'okufuga enkola y'ekiwandikiro. Bwe kiba nga ekibiina kya kampuni oba disitulikiti ey'ekitongole eky'omu kitundu, enteekateeka eno teyinza kugobererwa nteekateeka ezikwata ku mbeera z'ekiwandikiro.
  2. [[NKULULA]] Kino kikakasa ensonga lwaki omulimu gukolebwa: Singa ensonga ejjawo wansi wa mateeka ga gavumenti, okukakasa obanga Consert ekkirizibwa okuziyiza obusobozi bw'okugonjoolebwa. Singa okwewaana okwo kukwata ku mateeka g'eggwanga, kebera obanga gavumenti tesobola kugobererwa mu kkooti zaayo.
  3. [[NTANDIKO:0] Emirundi egimu, kiba kituufu okuwa emboozi eyo yokka esobola okuganyula: ssemagenya. Singa kooti ebaamu ensonga eyo ezingiramu ensonga enkulu mu ggwanga, tejja kuba kituufu. Jjula etteeka lya gavumenti erikwata ku ku bukuumi obw'okwerinda era ne ku nsonga eyo.
  4. [[NTANDIKA:0] Noonya Obuwere obuteeberezebwa: Singa ebikosebwa mu ssente bigaana, sooka olabe obanga endowooza eyo eyinza okukyusibwa omukungu wa gavumenti wansi w'ekirowoozo Expaste Young[. Kino kyetaagisa okumanya okumenyebwa okw'amateeka aga gavumenti okumala ekiseera.
  5. Olubu lwa '[NKULULA] olwa Wayiburi:[ Kano kakireetera okukebera olukalala "kukubisibwa" olukalala lw'ebiragiro mu nkola eya kiwandikiro. Kampuni oba nga kyategekebwa dda mu kkooti ey'ensi yonna naye nga tewakyaliwo bukuumi.

fundikira

Omuntu asalawo ku buli kitoogo ky'eggwanga akyasinze okunnyonnyola ensonga lwaki kya bulijjo, era nga kimwetaagisa enjawulo wakati w'ebyo ebigo n'obuyambi obw'enkyukakyuka mu ngeri entegeke obulungi. Abo abanoonya okulwana n'ebibiina bya gavumenti, tekiri nti obuwanguzi obufuga tebwetaagisa buleme kukendeeza kudda kudda kudda ku nkyukakyuka mu mateeka. Enjawulo eri wakati w'ebisale by'eggwanga n'obuwanguzi bw'ebyempalo, n'olulimi olw'enjawulo olwa SOE lwennyini, byonna bye bisalawo obanga embeera eriwo. Ebisaze ebyasalibwawo ebyaka ebyaka ebyaka ebyaka ebyakayita gye bigenda byeyongera okutereeza emitindo gy'obufuzi bw'eggwanga erina okumanyisa obulungi obutongole obukola eby'eby'obusuubuzi.