Mfundo yakuti dziko lizidzilamulira lokha ndi yochokera ku mfundo yakuti boma lolamulira silingaikidwe mlandu m’makhoti ake popanda kuvomereza kwake. Mfundo imeneyi yathandiza mayiko kugwirizana mwalamulo ndi mwauchigaŵenga kwa zaka mazana ambiri. Kuyambira m’zaka za m’ma 500 C. Ziphunzitso za mphamvu zonse za ufumu wa monarchy mpaka kukhazikitsa ulemu wa boma ndi kudziyang’anira, kuteteza ku ufulu wa munthu aliyense payekha kumakhala mbali ya malamulo ovuta kwambiri ndiponso otsutsana ndi a m’mitundu yonse. Nkhaniyi ikusonyeza chiyambi cha mbiri ya kutetezera ulamuliro wa munthu, chisinthiko kudzera mwa malamulo onse ndi misonkhano ya mayiko, ndipo kulephera kwa masiku ano kuchepetsa ufuluwo.

Chiyambi cha Mphamvu Yachifumu

Chiyambi cha kudzitetezera kwa munthu chija chinayambira ku chiphunzitso cha m'zaka zapakati chakuti mafumu ndi mafumu anali opambana lamulo. Ku England, chiphunzitsocho chinakhazikitsidwa mwa mawu apadera osakhala a mphika [[FLT: 0]], kutanthauza kuti "mfumu sangachite cholakwika. Lingaliro limeneli linatanthauza kuti mfumu inali yotetezeka ku milandu, osati chifukwa chakuti mfumuyo inali yosalakwa, koma chifukwa chakuti lamulo silikanakakamiza mfumuyo kuyankha m’mabwalo ake. Chitetezero chinamvedwa kukhala chachibadwa ku ulemu wa Mfumu ndi kapangidwe ka ulamuliro wa chipani cha chipani.

Chiphunzitso cha Chingelezi: [[FLT: 0]Rex Non Pot Peccare [1]

Lamulo lachingelezi linapanga kutetezera kwa kudzilamulira kupyolera m'kuphatikiza miyambo ya kuchuluka ndi ulamuliro wachifumu. M'nyengo yapakati, mfumu inali magwero a chilungamo; kunalingaliridwa kukhala kupanda nzeru kuti mfumu iitanidwe ku bwalo lamilandu limene iye anayang'anira. Nkhani zoyambirira zonga Probibibitions del Roy [660] ) ndi [FLT:] Kanoboloti ya Proclames [[FLT:] [1611])) zinalimbikitsa lamulo lakuti mfumu siingasunthe kumanga mabwalo ake popanda chivomezo. Zochita za pambuyo pake sizinachotse chitetezero chimenechi koma zinatsatitsatitsa ku njira yonga [FLT:] Chivomerezo cha kuimbidwa kwa kulakwa kwa kulakwa kwa kulakwa, ngakhale kuli kopena chilolezo chovomereze, ngakhale kuti chilolezo choikidwa ndi lamulo choikidwa.

Kunja kwa England, madongosolo alamulo a ku kontinenti ya ku Ulaya adavomerezanso kutetezeredwa kwa ufumu pansi pa lamulo la Roma kuchuluka konga ngati [FLT: 0] princes sibibus solutus est (kalonga saungwa ndi malamulo). Ku France, chiphunzitso cha munimté de l’État kuchokera ku ufumu wa Louis XIV kulowa m'malamulo 19thcentury a mwambo umene unayang'anira boma kukhala gawo lopatulana ndi lamulo laumwini. Komabe, pofika nthaŵi ya Kuyeretsa, mofanana ndi John Locle ndi Montesquieue anayamba kufunsa zitetezero, kubzala mbewu za pambuyo pake.

Kulandiridwa Koyambirira kwa Amereka ndi Kuperekedwa kwa Lamulo la Khumi ndi Lasanu ndi Lasanu ndi Aŵiri

Malo a ku America anatengera lamulo lachisawawa la ku England, kuphatikizapo lamulo lakuti wolamulira sakanazengedwa popanda chilolezo. Pambuyo pa ufulu, Nkhani za Confederation zinatsala ndi maboma otetezedwa, koma kupeka kwa malamulo kunadzutsa mafunso a mwamsanga. Chosankhachi chinayambitsa kulira pakati pa ochirikiza ulamuliro wa boma. Chotulukapo chinali cha (1793), U.S. Khoti Lali linavomereza kuti Gawo III la Konsiti la Malamulolo linalola nzika ya boma lapadera kusue Georgia popanda chivomerezo cha boma. Chigamulochi china chinasonkhezera kulira pakati pa ochirikiza ulamuliro wa boma. Chigamulo china chinali kuyendera [FLD: FUT] (955) (95) chigamulo chobwezeretsedwa ndi boma lolamulira pa "boma lolamulira Georgia popanda chigamulo kapena kutsutsa boma lina la United States, kapena kugamu.

Demendment ya khumi ndi mmodzi sinavomerezetse chipilala chathunthu; mmalo mwake, inakhazikitsa lamulo loletsa malamulo kuti malamulo a boma angachotseko mbali ina. Khoti Lapamwamba linafutukula ukulu wake m'milandu yonga Hans v. Louisiana [1890], posunga kuti kubwezerako kumaletsanso kulowa m'dziko lolamulidwa ndi nzika zake m’khoti la boma, ngakhale kuti mawuwo sakunena molunjika. Mzera umenewu unayambitsa chiphunzitso chalamulo cha ufulu wa boma chimene chikupitirizabe mu U.S.

Kukula m’Chilamulo Chachisawawa

Mkati mwa zaka za zana la 19 ndi kuchiyambi kwa zaka za zana la 20, lamulo la kuchinjiriza kotheratu kwa ulamuliro linalamulira ponse paŵiri mu United Kingdom ndi United States. Makhoti anakana mosalekeza kusekerera suti yotsutsana ndi olamulira achilendo kapena maiko a m’dziko popanda chivomerezo chomvekera bwino.

Chiphunzitso cha Kugwirizana Kotheratu

Mu Srake Exchange v. M'Faddon (1812), Woweruza Wamkulu John Marshall analongosola maziko a kutetezera kwa ufulu wachilendo mu U.S.: kukhalako kwa wolamulira wachilendo mu U.S. ndi nkhani ya chilolezo. Marshall analemba kuti ulamuliro wa dziko la mkati mwa dziko lake nlokha ndi lokwanira, koma ungavomereze kulanda ulamuliro wa achifumu achilendo monga nkhani ya kudziko lina. Nkhani imeneyi inakhazikitsa [[FLT:] chiphunzitso cha ulamuliro wachifumu [FLT] [FLT:] [FL:] [FL: 3] m'Enin'kapo, kumene kunagwiritsiridwa ntchito ndi pakati pa United States, kumene kunali ndi pakati pa zaka za zana la 2020. UKK ikugwirizana ndi njira yofanana ndi iyi: [FLT] [5] [5] [5]

Kulingalira kokwanira kwa chiphunzitso kunali kosavuta: kuchititsa boma lachilendo kuyang'anira m'makhoti a dziko lina kukaswa kulingana ndi kudziimira kwa olamulira. Koma pamene makampani odzilamulira a boma anawonjezereka , makampani a mafuta, makampani a ndege ndi makampani achinsinsi olankhula ndi makampani ameneŵa anapezeka kuti alibe chowathetsera pamene mikangano ibuka. Kupanda chilungamo kwa kulola boma kugulitsa ngati wamalonda ndiyeno kubisa ulamuliro kusonkhezera kusintha zinthu.

Kusintha kwa Lamulo la Kuletsa

Kusintha kunayamba kuchiyambi kwa zaka za zana la 20 ndi zosankha ku Italy ndi Belgium, zimene zinasiyanitsa pakati pa [FLT: 0] jureii (machitidwe a kulamulira) ndi [[FLT]]] jus gestion [[FLT]] (machitidwe a malonda]. Pansi pa [FLT:] chiphunzitso cha kutetezera kwa munthu [[FLT:]] [FLT]] , akunena kuti amalandira chitetezo cha ntchito zachifumu, osati za malonda. United States mwalamulo lakhala ndi lingaliro loletsa mu 1952 [FOL:6] Letter [NT] [IFF:7], loperekedwa ndi Active Avite. Komiti ya Boma ya Boma ya Breti Breti. Komiti ya za za zamalonda yosapereka chikalata chowonjezereka cha malonda inatsati. [U.] M'E. Komiti ya U.[44]

[[FULT:0] Kugwirizanitsa [1]: Dipatimenti ya Chilungamo – Kunja Kwachifumu Act

Tranki ya Tateyo inalibe mphamvu ya lamulo, koma inatsogolera makhoti a U.S. kufikira pamene Nyumba ya Malamulo inakhazikitsa chiphunzitso choletsa mu [FLT: 0] Mtsogoleri Wamkulu wa 1976 (FSIA). FSIA inakhazikitsa maziko aakulu odziŵira pamene maboma achilendo ndi ziŵiya zawo ziri zotetezeka ku mabwalo amilandu a U.S., ndipo idakalibe ulamuliro waukulu wa ulamuliro wa ulamuliro wa ulamuliro wa ulamuliro wa dziko lachilendo mu United States.

Chisinthiko m’Chilamulo cha Padziko Lonse

Pamene kuli kwakuti madongosolo a zamalamulo a m'banja analoŵa m'zinsinsi zoletsa, lamulo lamitundu yonse linavutika kulongosola muyezo wogwirizana. Bungwe la International Law Commission (ILC) linayamba ntchito pa mutu wankhani mu ma 1970, kumaliza mu United Nations Convention on Jurisdiction Immunity of United States and Theous Procracy [2004]

Msonkhano wa UN wa Zilango za Mlandu wa Chipani cha Nazi (2004)

Msonkhano wa UN unavomerezedwa ndi bungwe la General Convention pa 2 December 2004 ndipo unatsegulidwa kuti usainidwe pa 17 January 2005. Unalowa pa 10 September 2024, pambuyo pa kusungidwa kwa chipangizo cha 30 cha kukongoletsa. Msonkhano umachititsa kuti boma likhale loletsa zinthu zoletsedwa pa malonda, mapangano a ntchito, kuvulala kapena katundu, chuma, kapena kusokonezeka kwa zinthu. Ilo limakhazikitsanso malamulo a "kampani" ndi kugwiritsidwa ntchito kwa boma. Pofika kuma 2025, msonkhanowu uli ndi mayiko 31 pa ma Parties , kuphatikizapo chuma chachikulu monga Japan, Italy, ndi France. United States ndi United States ndi United States sanasaine.

[[FULT:0] Ugwirizanitso : [[FT:2] UN Treaty – Jurisdictional Immunications of States

Kuyerekezera: Chilamulo cha Chiŵeniŵeni chimatsutsana ndi Chilamulo Chachisawawa

Maiko a ku Ulaya, makamaka Germany ndi Italy, adalandira chitetezero choletsa kwa nthaŵi yaitali mwa zigamulo zachiweruzo. Federal Constitution Court , mu [FLT: 0] Server ya Iran Case (1963), adakhulupirira kuti kudzitetezera kwachilendo sikumafikira kuchita ndipo kumapatsa boma la ochinjiriza ufulu kuchokera ku ulamuliro wa UK, kusiyapo pa zochitika zotchulidwa, kuphatikizapo ntchito za ntchito. Mu United Kingdom, [FLT: 4.] Develote Imt Act [Gratection [FL:] ku [1]

European Convention on State Immuny (1972) inali kuyesayesa kwa poyamba kugwirizanitsa malamulo a boma otetezera ku Ulaya. Inayamba kugwira ntchito mu 1976 ndipo tsopano iri ndi zigawo zisanu ndi zitatu za maboma. Msonkhanowo umatenga njira yoletsa ndipo umaphatikizapo makonzedwe atsatanetsatane a ntchito ndi kutsatiridwa kwa ziweruzo. Komabe, inaloŵetsedwa mmalo ndi UN Convention ndi Convention yaposachedwapa [[FLT:] Council ya European Ood Protocol ku European Convention on State Immunity [1].

Zochitika Zamakono ndi Zosiyana

Mayiko ambiri amavomereza kuti anthu a m’mayiko ena amapatula malamulo a boma kapena mabungwe ena a boma pa zochitika zinazake.

Ntchito Yamalonda Ilotsedwa

Chosiyana chachikulu kwambiri ndi ntchito zamalonda. Pansi pa zonse ziŵiri FSIA ndi UN Convention, boma silimatetezeredwa pamene lichita malonda. FSIA imamasulira ntchito ya malonda kukhala njira yanthaŵi zonse ya kayendetsedwe ka malonda kapena malonda kapena kuchitapo kanthu. Funso lalikulu ndi lakuti kaya ntchitoyo ndi imene ingakhale inachitika. Mwachitsanzo, kugula ufulu wa ndege ndi boma pogula ndege, pamene kulanda katundu wachilendo kuli malonda, pamene kuli kwankhondo kwa kulanda chuma chachilendo mu nthaŵi ya nkhondo. Khoti limalingalira za mkhalidwe wa kachitidweko, osati cholinga chake, kugamula. Kupatula kumeneku kwachititsa kuwonjezereka kwa ndalama m'dziko monga makampani a mafuta, makampani a boma, makampani a mafuta ozemba, ndi boma.

Kuswa Ufulu wa Anthu ndi [[MLT: 0] Jus Cogens [[FL:1]

Chimodzi cha zosiyana zotsutsana kwambiri ndi zimenezi ndi kuswa malamulo a dziko lonse (] jus cogens [1], monga kuzunza, kuphana kwa mafuko, ndi ukapolo. Funso ndilo lakuti kodi boma linganene kuti likhoza kutetezera pazochita zimene zimaphwanya ufulu wa munthu, ngakhale ngati machitidwewo anali apamwamba m’chilengedwe. Al-Adtani v. United Kingdom [FFL:3] [2001], Bwalo la Unity of Human Rights linavomereza kuti UK's kutetezera ku Kusukonekera m'nkhani yozunza sikunaswera lamulo la m'mabwalo la milandu 6 la m'bungwe la ku Ulaya, chifukwa cha kuperekedwa kwa ufulu woyenerera (kuphatikiza 1.) ndipo linali lodziŵika kuti khoti la milandu lapadziko lonselo: [Fju4]

Komabe, makhoti ena adziko akhala ndi lingaliro losiyana. [[FLT: 0] Federal Republic of Germany (2004]), Khoti la ku Italy la Costation linavomereza kuti Jeremani sakanadzinenera kuti silingatetezedwe pa maupandu a nkhondo ndi kukakamizidwa kwa nkhondo yachiŵiri ya dziko lonse, chifukwa chakuti machitidwewo anaswa [[FLT:] covs [[FLT] . Zimenezi zinatsogolera ku [[FLT:] Jeriganizo la Injut Immounion ya Boma ya Boma [FLD II:5] mlandu wa pakati pa Chilungamo cha Dziko lonse (IC),. Mlaŵiro wa 2012, I CJ adalamulira lamulo la dziko lonse lotsutsana ndi lamulo la Germany loletsa nkhondo chifukwa cha malamulo a zunguliriririri, chifukwa cha lamulo la . [F7]

[[FULT:0] Ugwirizanitso : [[FT:2]ICJ – Juridictional Immunitions of the State (Germany v. Italy)]

Kuvomereza ndi Kudya Mtengo

Boma lingaletse kuchinjiriza kwake koonekera kapena koyenera. Kuletsa kuletsa kutetezera ku matenda kumachitika mwa pangano, pangano, kapena chigamulo cha munthu mmodzi. Kulephera kugwiritsa ntchito kukhoza kubuka pamene boma ligonjera ulamuliro wa khoti mwa kukonza chikalata kapena kuvomereza kuletsa kuletsa. Pansi pa FSIA, chotetezera cha boma mwa kugwirizana ndi kuvomereza kusudzulidwa kwa mankhwala oletsa matenda osokoneza thupi. Waiver amatengedwa motsimikizirika; woteteza chitetezo wa chiwembucho m'pangano sachita kulephera kuletsa kuweruza. Kusiyanitsa kumeneku pakati pa FSIA ndi kuphedwa ndi kutetezedwa kwa kuphedwa. Ngakhale ngati boma lingalephere kuletsa kusudzulidwa, chuma chake chingakhalebe chotetezedwa popanda kugwiriridwa, pokha ngati chigwiridwa ntchito, monga ngati chigwiritsiri chogwiritsiridwa ntchito cha malonda.

Uchigaŵenga Uchoka

Ku United States, pambuyo pa ziukiro 9 / 11, Congress inakonza FSIA kudzera mu Antitórism ndi Kugwira Ntchito ya Imfa ya 1996 ndi pambuyo pake Chilungamo pa Aspors of Terrorism Act (JASTA) ya 2016 [1] . Mapangano ameneŵa amalola kuletsa maboma akunja kuphana ndi maboma osankhidwa kukhala ochirikiza ntchito za uchigaŵenga, kuzunza, kapena kupha kowonjezera kumene kumachitika kunja kwa U. Uchigaŵengacho chatsogolera ku chiweruzo pa maiko onga Iran ndi Sul, koma chimapitirizabe kubweretsa ziweruzo zowopsa chifukwa cha kusakanizidwa kwa FSI kusoŵa kwake, pokhapokha ngati zigwiridwa m'malonda a United States.

Kutsutsana ndi Mavuto Obwerapo

Kuteteza thupi la munthu si chiphunzitso chosasintha; chikupitiriza kusintha kuti chigwirizane ndi ntchito zatsopano za boma, ulamuliro wa padziko lonse, ndi malamulo a ufulu wachibadwidwe.

Ngongole Yachifumu

Kusiyana kwa malonda kwakhala kokulira ku ngongole ya ufulu wa kudzilamulira. Pamene dziko la Argentina (2014, Khoti Lalikulu la U.S. kapena UK likhala ndi mlandu wonena kuti kulanda mapangano kuli ntchito yamalonda. NML, Ltd. Lipabuliki ya Argentina . v. Republic ya . . "2014, U.S. khoti lalikulu la Argentina lidali ndi ntchito yolimbana ndi mapangano ake. Mlandulo yokwanira kulola kupezedwa kwa chuma chake padziko lonse. Mlandu wotsogolera kuimirira pa kulipira ndalama, koma inatsimikiziranso kuti ngongole yachifumu ili mkati mwa malonda. FSIA, ngakhale kuli tero, chiyambukiro chosiyana ndi chiwonjezero cha malonda, chikabe "chiwonetse, chikabe, chikhoti chinenero cha dziko la United States pamene boma lakunja linapereka chinene.

Kulephera Kuloŵa m’Boma ←

Kufalikira kwa makampani a boma . Koma Convention imasiyanitsa pakati pa boma ndi mabungwe osiyana amene ali oyenerera kuteteza dzikolo ndi okhoza kusuta kapena kusuta. Chizoloŵezi cha FSIA chimachita SOEs monga "zofuna kapena ziŵiya" za dziko lachilendo, ndipo iwo ali otetezeka popanda kugwira ntchito. Magulu a UN Convention amasiyanitsa pakati pa boma ndi mabungwe osiyana omwe ali "oyenerera boma ndi okhoza kulembetsa kapena kusuta. Chikhoterero ndicho kuwona SOEs kukhala anthu alamulo, kutanthauza kuti amalandira chitetezo kaamba ka ntchito zochitidwa m'manja a ulamuliro. Magulu ameneŵa ngotsutsa kwambiri amene amagwirizana ndi mafuta odyetsedwa ndi boma, mafuta, mafuta, kapena makampani a migodi.

Kuŵerengera Mlandu wa Padziko Lonse

Roma Sigmentte ya International Criminal Court (ICC) imapereka kuti udindo walamulo monga mutu wa boma kapena boma silimaletsa munthu kuthamangitsa mlandu wa upandu. Zimenezi zimatsutsa mwachindunji lingaliro lamwambo la kudzitetezera kwa anthu oweruzidwa, upandu pa mtundu wa anthu, kapena maupandu ankhondo. Kugwidwa kwa bungwe la ICC kwa Pulezidenti wa Sudana Omar al MalBasir ndi kwa Pulezidenti wa Russia Vladimin Pladimin kumasonyeza kuti chitetezo cha thupi [[FL: 0] munthu wopatuka kwa anthu opatulidwa ndi mlandu wa dziko lonse, (kulephera kuletsa kuweruza milandu ya dziko lonse). Komabe, kugawidwa kwa makhoti a dziko lonse. Komabe, kugawidwa kwa nkhondo ya U. Wapolisi wa Nkhondo (2002] I C.

[[MLT:0] Ugwirizanitso [[FULT:1]: [[MLT:2] Cornell Information Institute – Wolamulira [[FULT: 3]

Kumaliza

Chiphunzitso cha ufulu wodzilamulira chachokera ku malingaliro a m'zaka zapakati a kuyenera kwa Mulungu ndi kusalakwa kwachifumu ku lamulo lovuta kwambiri limene liyenera kulinganiza ulemu wa ulamuliro wa boma ndi kulamula kwa chilungamo, kuŵerengera, ndi malonda a dziko lonse. Chiphunzitso chonse cha m'zaka za zana la 19 chinaloŵa m'nthanthi yoletsa m'zaka za 20, ndipo zaka za zana la 21 za zana la 21 zikupitirizabe kuyesa malire a chiletso chimenecho. Msonkhano wa UN pa Jurisivation Immunication of State and Theous, pamene kulibe kuti siike kuvomerezedwa kwapadziko lonse, kuimira kukwaniritsidwa kwakukulu kwa kuyandikira koletsa. Komabe mafunso aakulu atsala: Kodi ayenera kupitirizabe kulephera kuletsa chiletso chimenecho kwa [FLD:0]?

Pamene dziko likugwirizana mowonjezereka, chiphunzitsocho chidzapitirizabe kusinthika. akatswiri ndi odziŵa za mankhwala ayenera kupitirizabe kulabadira kugwirizanitsa kosiyana pakati pa malamulo a dziko, mapangano a mitundu yonse, ndi lamulo lamwambo la dziko lonse. Kuikidwiratu kwa otetezera ufulu wa kudzilamulira kuli m’kukambitsirana kopitirizabe kwa uchifumu wa maboma ndi uchifumu wa munthu aliyense amene akufunitsitsa kukhala ponse paŵiri wogwira ntchito ndi woyenerera.

[[FULT:0] Ugwirizanitso [1]: Encclopædia Britannica – Mfumu Immunony