Maziko a Mbiri Yakale a Kusagwirizana Koposa

Chiphunzitso cha ufulu wodzilamulira, chochokera ku mwambo m'maparemu opanda habet imperium [1] (wofanana ndi wina) (wofanana ndi wina), anachokera ku miyambo ya absofitist ya mamonarch of Europe. M'malemba ake apamwamba, chiphunzitso chotetezedwa ku mabungwe achilendo monga chizindikiro cha ulemu ndi kulingana pakati pa mafumu. U.S. Khoti Lali lalikulu linafotokoza mfundo imeneyi Scrective v. [M'FLT] Active . [12] [18]), pochita zinthu zotetezera, kuti anthu achilendo anali otetezedwa ku America ndi ku ulamuliro wa anthu oimira.

Kusintha kuchoka ku kuchinjiriza kotheratu ku kupitirizabe kutsendereza pambuyo pa Nkhondo Yadziko II, kosonkhezeredwa ndi kuloŵerera kwa boma m'zochita zamalonda. Immunies Sect (FISIA) ya kumaiko Akunja ya United States inagwirizanitsa njira yoletsa imeneyi, kuchotsa khalidwe lamalonda kuchinjiriza ndi kutetezera zochita za anthu. Malamulo ofananawo anabuka ku Ulaya ndi Asia, kusonyeza chivomerezo chimene chimati kuchita monga otengamo mbali msika sayenera kudyetsedwa. Komabe zida zimenezi zinanena zochepa ponena za kuswa kwa ufulu wa anthu, kuyambitsa mkhalidwe walamulo umene mibadwo ya pambuyo pake ikavutikira kukwaniritsa.

Kukwera kwa Ufulu wa Anthu Padziko Lonse

Pambuyo pa1945, kusintha kwa ufulu wa anthu kunasintha kwambiri malamulo a dziko lonse. Mwa kugwiritsa ntchito Chilengezo cha ufulu wa anthu cha mu 1948, chinkavomereza kuti anthu anali ndi ufulu umene unapitirira malire a dziko. Mapanganowa "Pangano la International Pangano pa Zoyenera za Chilengedwe ndi zandale, Msonkhano wa Geneva, ndi Msonkhano wolimbana ndi Kulimbana ndi Kusoŵeka kwa Maboma kuti aletse, kuweruza, ndi kuthetsa nkhanza za manda. Zida zimenezi zinayambitsa lingaliro la cogns : malamulo opatula lamulo a mitundu yonse amene salola kuchotsedwa, kuphatikizapo kuletsa kuzunza, kuzunza, ndi kupululutsana ukapolo.

Makhoti aupandu apadziko lonse anakulitsa zochitika zimenezi. Milandu ya ku Nuremberg inakhazikitsa kuti anthu angaikidwe mlandu wa kulakwa chifukwa cha zochita zochitidwa pansi pa ulamuliro wa boma, kubooledwa chophimba cha ulamuliro. International Criminal Court [1] , yokhazikitsidwa ndi Roma Signalte mu 1998, kuwonjezerabe kugamulidwa kwa munthu aliyense waupandu ku mlandu wa lamulo la dziko lonse. Mabungwe ameneŵa sanapereke masuti a boma mwachindunji otsutsana ndi maboma, koma anapanga malo ovomerezeka oyenerera m’mene malamulo a anthu ankaonedwa kukhala opambana kwambiri pa ziphunzitso za boma zotetezera ufulu.

Mabungwe omenyera ufulu wa anthu ndiponso akatswiri a zamalamulo ananena kuti kupatsa maboma ufulu wodziteteza ku matenda ozunza kapena kupha anthu mwa njira ina yake n’kumene kunawalepheretsa kuchiritsa anthu mwa njira iliyonse.

Mkangano wa Jus

Chitokoso chachikulu cha chiphunzitso cha ufulu wodzilamulira chinachokera ku lingaliro la jus cogens . Ochirikiza anatsutsa kuti malamulo odziwonetsera, malinga ndi kulongosola, amachotsa lamulo lililonse lotsutsana lapadziko lonse, kuphatikizapo malamulo alionse a boma oletsa kuteteza. Ngati kuzunza kwa kukana, iwo angaganize kuti, palibe boma linganene kuti n’kupeŵa sumu wa kuzunza. Khoti la International Court of Justice pofotokoza mfundo imeneyi mu Juridictal Immunication Ital Itrial Itrial Itriteal ya Boma (German v. Italy) [FLT:] [202], posagwirizana ndi kutsutsa kwake kopambana.

Lamulo Lalikulu la Milandu ndi Kukula kwa Zilango

Makhoti a m’boma akhala akulimbana ndi mafunso amenewa kwa zaka zambiri, ndipo akupanga malamulo osiyanasiyana koma ogwirizana kwambiri.

Kusintha Malo ndi Malo a Alien

Mu United States, chigamulo cha Bwalo Lapamwamba mu [[FLT: 0] Statu Trigime [1] (27) chinapereka maziko a kugamula kwa mitundu ina kuti isunge mlandu wa kuswa malamulo a dziko lonse. Khoti Lapamwambalo linagamula Sosab. Alvarez-Machain . Petrople. Cotroule. [FLT] . [2011] [20], Khoti loikidwa kumbali ya dziko lonse.

Ngakhale kuti pali zopinga zimenezi, ufulu wa anthu wosiyapo ufulu wodzilamulira wa anthu wapulumuka pa zifukwa zochepa. Uchigaŵenga wa FSIA, umene unachitidwa mu 1996 ndi kufutukuka mu 2008, umalola masuti otsutsana ndi maboma osankhidwa kukhala ochirikiza uchigaŵenga wa kuzunza, kupha anthu owonjezereka, ndi kupha anthu. Kupatulapo kumeneku kumasonyeza chiweruzo chandale chimene maboma ena amataya chitetezo chawo mwa kuchirikiza kwawo kuswa ufulu wa anthu.

Makhoti a ku Ulaya ndi Kusintha kwa Ziletso

Chikalata cha Yuropu choletsa kutetezeredwa kwa ufulu wa munthu ndi ufulu wachibadwidwe chakhala champhamvu kwambiri. Khoti la European Court of Human Rights mu Al-Adsani v. United Kingdom (2001) anakana kuletsa kutetezeredwa m'nkhani ya kuzunza, kutsutsana ndi mwambo. Komabe, Khoti la Malamulo la Italy ku Disition No. 238. (49] adatsutsa mwachindunji kuletsa ICJJistration Immicrial Immic, posunga kuti makhoti a Italy angamve mlandu wa Jeremani chifukwa cha nkhanza za WWI chifukwa cha ufulu wa ufulu wa kulephera kukhazikitsa lamulo lamitundu yonse.

Makhoti achigiriki anakhazikitsanso zigamulo . Margelos v. Federal Republic of Germany (2002], Khoti Lalikulu la Chihelene linakana poyamba kutetezeredwa pa milandu ya nkhondo ya Nazi, koma kubwezeredwa ndi Bwalo Lapamwamba lapadera pa maziko ochirikiza. Khoti la German Federal Constitution latenga njira yosiyana kwambiri, kutsimikizira chitetezo ngakhale m’nkhani zokhudza kuswa ufulu wa anthu kowopsa, ngati pali njira zina zothetsera.

Zopereka za ku Latin America ndi za Kummwera kwa Dziko Lonse

Makhoti a Global South ayamba kufunsa mafunso ameneŵa, kaŵirikaŵiri kuchokera ku lingaliro limene limaika ufulu wa anthu pa ulamuliro wamwambo. Khoti la Communical , mu [FLT: 0] Decision C-788 [718] (201]]) (20: 1), adanena kuti kuswa ufulu wachibadwidwe kwakukulu kungapange kusemphana koyenera ndi ufulu wa boma, makamaka kumene mikhole ikanakhala yopanda njira yosinthira zinthu. Khoti Lapamwamba la Argentina layanjana ndi maupandu achilendo kwa anthu, likumatchula zochitika za m'mbiri ya dziko ndi chiweruzo chosintha. Zosankha zimenezi zimasonyeza kuzindikira komakula kwa chiphunzitso cha ufulu wotetezera ufulu wa anthu, makamaka m’madera kumene chiwawa chachititsa kuvutika.

Kulimbana ndi Kugwirizana

Kusemphana maganizo pakati pa ulamuliro ndi ufulu wa anthu sikuli chabe chiphunzitso; kuli ndi tanthauzo lenileni la kukambirana, kugwirizana kwa boma, ndi kubwezera anthu amene achitiridwa nkhanza.

Diplomatic Protection and State-to State- State Negotiation

Pamene makhoti a m'dziko akana kumva mawu onena za ufulu wa anthu motsutsana ndi maiko ena, mikhole ingatembenukire ku chitetezo cha mayiko ena: boma lawo limagwirizana ndi mfundozo kupyolera mwa njira za maaunti. Njira imeneyi, yovomerezedwa ndi ICJ, imakhala ndi chitetezo cha ufulu pamene ikupereka mankhwala ena othekera. Komabe, imaika chosankha cha kulondola zonse zonena za kutetezera munthu m’manja mwa boma la wodwalayo, zimene zingalephere kuchitapo kanthu pa zifukwa za ndale. The International Law Commission’s Distap on Diplomatic Protection (2006) inavomereza kuti kuthekera kwa kuchita ntchito yotetezera kwa mayanjana, makamaka pamene chivulazo chachikulu chachitika, koma palibe thayo logwira ntchito.

Pangano Lozikidwa pa Zosagwirizana ndi Zam’tsogolo

Maboma ena aloŵa m'mapangano a chibaya kapena a m'mayiko ambiri amene amasintha ufulu wodzilamulira m'nkhani za ufulu wa anthu. United Nations Convention on Jurisditional Immunical Immunion of State ndi Theous [2004], pamene kuli kwakuti siikukakamiza, imaphatikizapo ntchito yosiyana ndi anthu onse m'Chigawo 10 koma mwapadera imasiya ufulu wa anthu. Msonkhano wa kukonza mbiri umavumbula magaŵano oopsa pakati pa maboma oyanja ufulu wa anthu ndi amene amachirikiza kuswa ufulu wa anthu. Zimenezi zikusonyeza kuti anthu akupitirizabe kukhudzidwa ndi nkhani ya nkhani ya m’mayiko ambiri.

Njira Zina Zopangira Makina

Maboma ena atakhumudwa ndi zipinga zachiweruzo, akhazikitsa njira zoperekera malipiro kuti afotokoze kuswa ufulu wa anthu. Foundation ya Germany "Remembrance, Treasurence " inapereka chiwonjezero kwa amene kale anali antchito okakamizidwa m'nyengo ya Nazi, kukhazikitsa mawu akuti ngati sikukanayesa chitetezo cha ulamuliro wa munthu m’mayiko osiyanasiyana. Italiya inakhazikitsa ndalama ya Ndalama ya anthu ovutika ndi nkhondo kuti ibwezerere anthu amene anavutika ndi nkhanza za Nazi pambuyo polamulira Jeriganiganialtial Immunity I . Machitidwewawa, ngakhale kuti ndi opanda ungwiro, amasonyeza kuti njira zothandiza zikhoza kukhala kunja kwa bwalo la milandu, ngati akupereka chilungamo chokwanira.

Kutsutsana kwa Nthaŵi Yatsopano ndi Malangizo a M’tsogolo

Mafunso angapo amene akubuka ndi mafunso osathetsedwa adzakhudza chisinthiko chake m’zaka makumi akudzawo.

Malo Otsutsa Otsutsana ndi Maupandu

Post9 / 11 lagawa mlandu wakulitsa kugaŵikana kwa uchigaŵenga, makamaka ku United States ndi Canada. Chiweruzo Choletsa Upo wa Uchigaŵenga (JASTA) (2016) chinalola masuti olimbana ndi maboma akunja a zigaŵenga zimene zikuchitika mu United States, kupambana kwa ulamuliro m'nkhani zina. Lamulo limeneli linayambitsa mkangano waukulu, ndi maboma akunja akuchenjeza kuti chikasokoneza maunansi apadziko lonse ndi kufooketsa ulamuliro. Saudi Arabia anayang'anizana ndi milandu yambiri pansi pa kuukira kwa JAHTA egsion mu 9 / 11. Nkhani zimenezi zimadzutsa mafunso aakulu onena za malire a oimira boma ndi malo oyenera a makhoti a bwalo lamilandu polankhula ndi boma lauganda.

Thayo la Kusamalira ndi Kulolera

Kutsutsa ufulu wa anthu kumawonjezereka kuchitidwa ndi mabungwe amene amanenedwa kukhala athandiza kapena kupindula ndi kupotoza ufulu wa anthu. Doe v. UFLT (Malinga ndi ma "2002] m'United States ndi ] Vedanta Resources plc v. Lunter [FLT] [2011] [2011]) mu United Kingdom [Union Kingdom] inakhazikitsa kuti makampani a makolo azikhala ndi mathayo a chisamaliro kwa anthu okhudzidwa ndi ntchito zawo zapansi pa kuswa ufulu wa anthu. Pamene kuli kwakuti nkhani zimenezi sizikutsutsa mwachindunji chitetezero, zimachinyalanyaza mwa kuyang'anira oseŵera opanga malonda amene akugwirizana ndi maboma opondereza. Kukulakula kwa ufulu wa anthu m’malamulo a ku Ulaya ochirikiza ufulu wa ku Ulaya kwa kuthaŵitsa mapangano audindo awo odzilamulira.

Kugwirizana kwa Akuluakulu a Boma ndi Atsogoleri a Boma

Funso logwirizana koma losiyana limakhudza kutetezeredwa kwa akuluakulu a boma ndi akuluakulu a maiko ena. ICJ mu Arrest Warrant (Democratic Republic of Congo v. Belgium) [[FLT1] [mabungwe] (2002] adakhulupirira kuti atumiki achilendo ali ndi chitetezo chonse ku milandu yaupandu m'makhoti achilendo, ngakhalenso chifukwa choimbidwa mlandu wa nkhondo. Komabe, chiweruzocho chinasiya kutseka mlandu m'mabwalo amilandu a mitundu yonse kapena pambuyo pa mabwalo a boma. Nkhani ya Albahr [ast , NW], ndi Arctic , poti adayesedwabe ndi pulezidenti wa Sup ku Supreme Court of Africa. Chigant cha ku Governst African, mlandu wa Roma woyang'anizana ndi lamulo la chigamu chachikulu kwambiri.

Mafuko Osiyanasiyana Akutsata

Ufulu wa anthu wokana kutetezeredwa ku ziwalo zaufulu wa munthu wakula mosiyana m’madera osiyanasiyana, kusonyeza miyambo ya zamalamulo yosiyana, zokumana nazo za m’mbiri, ndi zochitika za ndale zadziko.

Ulaya: Nyumba Yogawanika

Mayiko a ku Ulaya akugawikana pakati pa anthu otsatira lamulo lokhwima loteteza thupi (German, United Kingdom) ndi awo amene akutsata kuchepa (Italy, Greece, ndi, Poland ndi Slovenia). European Union sinafotokoze mwachindunji za ufulu wa anthu, kusiya mamembala a dziko kuti ayendere malo ameneŵa mwa kugwiritsa ntchito malamulo a dziko ndi kumasulira kwa milandu. Bungwe la European’s European Convention on State Immunity (1972) silinatchule ufulu wa anthu, ngakhale kuti Khoti la ku Ulaya la Ufulumo la ufulu wa Anthu lasonyeza kuti liyenera kuteteza ufulu wa anthu pamene kuphwanya malamulo kuli.

North America: Uchigaŵenga ndi Malamulo Olamulira

United States ndi Canada awonjezera kuletsa kuteteza chitetezo makamaka mwa malamulo omenyera boma kuukira zigaŵenga. Chikalata cha boma la Canada Immuny Act chinakonzedwa mu 2012 kuti chipange uchigaŵenga, kutheketsa anthu kusudzulidwa monga mayiko ochirikiza uchigaŵenga. Mayiko onsewa amasunga njira yoletsa kwambiri yotetezera anthu pa nkhani zamalonda koma alemba ufulu wachindunji wa anthu wosiyana ndi malamulo a boma m’malo mwa njira zachiweruzo. Zimenezi zikusonyeza kulolera kulakwa: makhoti akupereka malamulo a boma pankhani zaudindo za mayiko ena, pamene kuli kwakuti malamulo alamulo ayankha kupempha kuti adziyankhire mlandu.

Asia ndi Africa: Kuloŵananso

Makhoti ku Asia ndi Africa akuyamba kuchita mafunso ameneŵa, kaŵirikaŵiri kusonkhezeredwa ndi zitukuko zalamulo za dziko lonse. Khoti la South Africa, mu Chikalata cha Republic of South Africa v. Von Abon, (202), imazindikira kuti lamulo ladziko lonse loletsa ufulu wa anthu likhoza kusanduka kuti likhale ndi ufulu wachibadwidwe. Komabe, makhoti ameneŵa nthaŵi zambiri asiya kukhazikitsa ufulu wa anthu wosiyana ndi ufulu wawo, kuchenjeza za malire a India. Aza Bambo Bachoolan Ando Ando Ando Ando Andoolan [[FLT:] (2003]) (2003]) kuvomereza kuti malamulo a m'malamulo a dziko lonse omasulira malamulo. Komabe, makhoti ameneŵa asiya kuchepetsa ufulu wa anthu wodzilamulira ufulu wa anthu, kusonyeza kunyalanyaza malire a kuweruza a mu Africankhoti, makamaka pa nkhani za ufulu wa anthu, makamaka zonena za kutsutsa ufulu wawo womaloŵa ntchito za kumasulira lamulo.

Kumaliza

Chiphunzitso cha kutetezeredwa kwa ufulu wa boma chikusintha kwambiri. Chinkakhala chikopa chotetezera anthu, chotetezedwa moyenerera, chopangidwa mwalamulo, ndi mwachiweruzo. Kukwera kwa malamulo a ufulu wa anthu padziko lonse sikunathetse kutetezeredwa kwa ufulu wa kudzilamulira, koma kwakakamiza makhoti, opanga malamulo, ndi akatswiri kuyang’anizana ndi mafunso osakondweretsa okhudza unansi pakati pa ulamuliro wa boma ndi chilungamo cha munthu aliyense payekha.

Chigamulo cha ICJ chijambulidwa mu Juristional Imminitunies (Germany v. Italy) chinatsimikizira kuti palibe kusiyanitsa kwachisawawa kwa ufulu wa anthu kumene kulipo pansi pa lamulo lamwambo wa dziko lonse. Komabe, chiweruzo sichinalunjikitse kuthekera kwakuti maboma angakhoze, mwa pangano kapena malamulo a m’dziko, kupanga kusiyana koteroko. Chosankha chachikulu sichinaimitse kukambitsirana kofala: ochirikiza ufulu wa anthu amaumirirabe kuti malamulo a kutsendere ku zipinga zotsende ku chiweruzo. Makhoti a kumaiko ambiri akugwira ntchito monga malo otetezera malamulo alamulo, kuyesa malire a oletsa kuukira milandu yowopsa yokhudza upandu wapadziko lonse.

Kwa ochiritsa ndi opanga malamulo, kudutsa m'dziko limeneli kumafuna kumvetsetsa bwino lamulo loyenera m'chigawo chilichonse. Funso nlakuti kaya malamulo a ufulu wachibadwidwe amakhudzanso chitetezo cha munthu cha ulamuliro(iwo, ndipo mozama. Funso ndilo mmene angayanjanitsire mfundo ziŵiri za maziko: kulemekeza ulamuliro wa boma ndi kufunika kwa kuŵerengera mlandu wa kuswa ufulu wa anthu. Palibe yankho limodzi lomwe lapezeka, ndipo palibe aliyense amene angakhutiritse mokwanira osunga ufulu wa munthu. Chowonekeratu nchakuti chiphunzitso cha ufulu wa kudzitetezera chakhala chosagonjetsedwa kotheratu ndi lamulo loyenerera la anthu, ndipo malo alamulo adzapitirizabe kusintha monga nkhani zatsopano, mapangano atsopano, ndi mphamvu zatsopano za ndale zadziko zikutuluka.

Kaamba ka kuŵerenga kowonjezereka pa chisinthiko cha kudziimira kwa ufulu wa munthu, onani [[FLT: 0] Juristional Immunication of the State (Germany v. Italy) Chiweruzo , [[FLT:] Convention pa Juriscialition Immunition Immunitial , ndi kusanthula kwa American Society ya Chilamulo cha Mitundu Yonse [[[FLT:]] pa kutetezera kwamakono. Kumvetsetsa zochitika zimenezi nkofunika kaamba ka ntchito iliyonse yalamulo lalamulo pa mpikisano wa maiko, ufulu wa anthu, ndi kugaŵana kwa anthu.