Maziko a Khoti la ku America

Chigamulo cha jaji ndi maziko a ulamuliro wa democracy, likulu la kumasulira malamulo, kuthetsa mikangano, ndi kutsimikizira kuti chilungamo chikuchitidwa bwino. Ku United States, dongosolo la khoti lamilandu lapangidwa ndi makhoti aŵiri, omwe ali ndi mabwalo a boma ndi a boma, limodzi ndi limodzi lokhala ndi maulamuliro osiyanasiyana ndi mathayo. Kumvetsetsa dongosololi kuli kotsutsa kwa aliyense wophunzira lamulo, mbiri, kapena uyang’aniro, pamene kuli kuyambukira mwachindunji mmene malamulo amagwiritsidwira ntchito ndi mmene ufulu wa munthu aliyense payekha umatetezedwera.

Malamulo a U.S. amakhazikitsa lamulo la boma pansi pa Mfundo III, pamene makhoti a boma amapeza ulamuliro wawo ku malamulo a boma ndi malamulo. Malamulo aŵiri ameneŵa amatanthauza kuti nkhani zambiri zalamulo zimasamaliridwa pamlingo wa boma, koma milandu yokhudza lamulo la boma, mafunso alamulo, kapena mikangano ya mayiko imatsatiridwa ndi boma. Chotulukapo ndicho makhoti ovuta koma ogwirizana omwe amagwirizanitsa mgwirizano wa dziko ndi kulolerana kwa dziko.

Mbiri Yakukula kwa Makhoti ku United States

Khotili silinakhazikitsidwe mokwanira; linachokera ku miyambo ya anthu a ku England ndi machitachita a atsamunda. Pambuyo pa ufulu, Chilamulo cha Jadiciary cha mu 1789 chinapanga khoti loyamba la boma, kuphatikizapo Bwalo Lapamwamba, makhoti a zigawo, ndi makhoti a madera. Mkati mwa zaka mazana ambiri, dongosololo linakula mwa malamulo osintha zinthu monga Evarts Act ya 1891, imene inakhazikitsa malamulo a boma amakono, ndi kupangidwa kwa makhoti apadera kuti ayang'anire kulephera kulipira ndalama, msonkho, ndi nkhani zamalonda apadziko lonse.

Makhoti a boma, panthaŵi ino, anakula mogwirizana, kaŵirikaŵiri kusonyeza malingaliro a chigawo ndi zosoŵa za lamulo. Mwachitsanzo, maboma ena anakhazikitsa makhoti osiyana kaamba ka kuyenera (choikitsa) pamene ena anagwirizanitsa makhoti. Lerolino, boma lirilonse liri ndi bwalo lake lalikulu, makhoti apakati, ndi makhoti ozenga milandu ya ulamuliro wa onse, limodzi ndi makhoti ambiri ozenga milandu.

Mitundu ya Makhoti: Kusweka Kogwirizana

Makhoti Oweruza: Mzera Wolamulira wa Chilungamo

Makhoti a milandu, odziŵikanso monga makhoti a poyamba, ndiwo amayamba milandu. Amamva umboni, kufufuza mboni, ndi kutsimikizira mfundo. M’dongosolo la boma, ameneŵa amatchedwa Makhoti Achigawo a United States, ndipo pali zigawo 94 zotero m’dziko lonselo. chigawo chilichonse chimaphatikizapo khoti la olephera kubweza ngongole monga khoti la chigawo.

Makhoti a boma amaperekedwa ndi mayina osiyanasiyana . Bwalo lamilandu lalikulu, khoti ladera, khoti lachigawo, kapena khoti la boma, koma onse amachita ntchito yofunika yofanana. Amasamalira nkhani zonse ziŵiri zachiŵeniŵeni (m’chitsanzo, milandu ya munthu mwini, kuvomerezana, lamulo la banja) ndi milandu ya upandu (kuyambira ku zolakwa ku maupandu aakulu). Maboma ena aakulu alinso ndi magaŵano apadera a milandu ya probate, achichepere, kapena milandu yaubale.

Makhoti Ozenga Milandu Yapadera

Mkati mwa bwalo lozenga milandu, maulamuliro ambiri apanga makhoti apadera kuwongolera kukhoza ndi ukatswiri:

  • [[FLT: 0] Makhoti a Bankrupt: Asamalire milandu yonse ya kulephera kubweza ngongole pansi pa lamulo la boma, kuphatikizapo mutu 7, 11, ndi 13 masefa . program ya U.S. Trustee Program imayang'anira ntchito yotsimikizira kugonjera.
  • [[MLT: 0] Makhoti a Tax : Tsalani mikangano pakati pa osonkha msonkho ndi Utumiki wa Mkati mwa Kusintha (IRO) asanalipire ndalama zotsutsana.
  • Makhoti a Juvenile: Kusumika maganizo pa achichepere amene akuimbidwa mlandu wa kupulupudza kapena amene akufunikira kuyang’aniridwa, ndi chigogomezero pa kukonzanso zinthu mmalo mwa chilango.
  • Makhoti a Thanzi la Mantha: Kuchotsa anthu ndi matenda a maganizo kuchokera ku dongosolo la chiweruzo chaupandu kuloŵa m'maprogramu a kuchiritsa.
  • Makhoti a trags: Apereke njira ina m'kumangidwa kwa opalamula mankhwala ogodomalitsa opanda chiwawa, kuphatikiza uyang’aniro ndi mankhwala osokoneza bongo.

Makhoti Okalipira: Kupenda Cholembedwacho

Makhoti a apilo sachititsa makhoti atsopano; iwo amapenda mbiri kuchokera ku khoti lozenga mlandu kuti aone ngati zolakwa za lamulo zinachitika zimene zinakhudza zotsatira zake. M'makhoti a boma, makhoti apakati a ku United States ndi makhoti a apilo, ogawidwa m’madera 13 (magawo a chigawo, D.C. Transtuation, ndi Federal ). Makhoti a boma ali ndi mabwalo a apilo amodzi, pamene maboma aakulu monga California ndi Texas ali ndi zigawo zingapo.

Zipilo sizichitika mwachibadwa m'nkhani zambiri. Olepherawo ayenera kulemba chikalata cha apilo ndi milandu (malamulo) ofotokoza chifukwa chake khoti lamilandu linalakwa. Oweruza atatu aweruza . Nthawi zambiri amapenda mfundozo, angamve mfundo zapakamwa, ndiyeno angalembe maganizo. Zotsatira zake zikhoza kukhala:

  • Kutsimikizira: Kuchirikiza chigamulo cha khoti lozenga mlandu.
  • Kutsatira: Tsalani chigamulo.
  • Remand : [[FLT :1] Kutumiza mlandu ku khoti lozenga mlandu kaamba ka zokambirana zowonjezereka zogwirizana ndi lingaliro la kuweruza.
  • Kusintha: Kukhazikitsa chigamulo cha khoti lozenga mlandu.

Mmene Zinthu Zimayendera

Si khoti lililonse loyesa loyesa limene limavomereza kubwezera. Makhoti a kafukufuku amagwiritsira ntchito miyezo yosiyana ya kubwereramo. Mwachitsanzo, mafunso a lamulo amapendedwanso devo (atsopano), kutanthauza khoti lopereka chilolezo ku ku kumasulira kwa woweruza. Kupeza mfundo kumapendedwa kaamba ka [[FLT:]] kulakwitsa koonekeratu [, muyezo wapamwamba kwambiri. Sayansi, monga ngati kuvomereza umboni wina, kumabwereranso chifukwa cha [FLT:] . Mayeso ameneŵa amatsimikizira kuti makhoti olondola alamulo oyenera pamene akuweruza milandu.

Makhoti Apamwamba: Ulamuliro Womalizira

Makhoti aakulu omwe alipo ponse paŵiri pa milingo ya boma ndi ya boma. U.S. Khoti Lapamwamba kwambiri ndilo khoti lapamwamba m'dziko, lopangidwa ndi oweruza asanu ndi anayi amene amatumikira kuikidwa kwa moyo wonse. Lili ndi ulamuliro woyamba m'makhoti ochepera (m.g., mikangano pakati pa maboma) koma makamaka amayendetsa ulamuliro, kusankha milandu imene ingamvedwe kudzera m'makhoti a . Khoti limabwerera ku pafupifupi 80-100 milandu iliyonse yoposa 7,000 zopempha. Zigamu za malamulozo zoikidwazo zonse zogwirizana pa makhoti a pansi pa dziko lonselo.

Makhoti aakulu a boma (nthaŵi zina otchedwa makhoti a zigamulo zomalizira) ali ndi mawu omalizira pankhani za lamulo la boma ndi kumasulira kwa lamulo la boma. Zigamulo zawo nzamapeto pokhapokha zitaphatikizapo funso limene lingapititsidwe ku Khoti Lalikulu la United States. Makhoti aakulu a boma kwenikweni amaphatikizapo oweruza asanu kapena asanu ndi anayi, osankhidwa kapena oikidwa mogwirizana ndi njira ya boma.

Ntchito za Makhoti: Pambuyo pa Kutsutsana

Makhoti amagwira ntchito zosiyanasiyana zochirikiza malamulo ndi dongosolo la kakhalidwe ka anthu.

  • [[FLT: 0] Chigamulo cha Chilango cha Chikoka: Makhoti amapereka mabwalo olinganizidwa, opanda tsankho pothetsa mikangano. Popanda makhoti, makhoti afunikira kutembenukira ku chithandizo chaumwini kapena chiwawa chaumwini, kufooketsa kukhazikika kwa mayanjano.
  • Kutsogolera Chilamulo: malamulo kaŵirikaŵiri ngovuta. Makhoti amamveketsa tanthauzo lawo mwa kumasulira, kugwiritsira ntchito zolembera za kumanga ndi chitsanzo. Ntchito imeneyi imapatsa moyo ku malemba alamulo osawoneka.
  • Kuchinjiriza Ufulu Waumwini : Makhoti aakulu otetezera ufulu walamulo. Amapenda malamulo ndi machitidwe a boma ogwirizana ndi Bill of Rights ndi malamulo a boma. Milandu yomalemba monga Brown v. Board of Education [1954] ndi [[FLT:]] Obergefell v. Hodges [1] (20) imasonyeza ntchito ya jidiary mu kufutukuka kwa anthu.
  • Kukhazikitsa (Magamulo Onyenga): [[FLT :1] Zigamulo za khoti lapamwamba zimakhala zogwirizana zimene makhoti aang'ono ayenera kutsatira. Chiphunzitso ichi cha sstare decis [ chimatsimikizira kusasintha ndi kuneneratu m’lamulo. Pamene Khoti Lapamwamba lipanga chigamulo, chimaumba zotulukapo zalamulo kwa zaka makumi ambiri.
  • Khoti la Ufulu Wakudziwitsa: Khoti silimangogwiritsira ntchito lamulo; limalongosola makhalidwe a anthu. Mwa malingaliro olingalira, oweruza amalongosola khalidwe lovomerezeka ndi limene silili loyenera, kusonkhezera anthu kuona chilungamo.
  • [[FLT: 0] Makhoti oyang’anira oyang'anira: amapenda zochita za mabungwe a boma kutsimikizira kuti iwo asunga ulamuliro wawo walamulo ndi kutsatira njira zoyenerera. Izi zimadziŵika monga kupenda kwa chiweruzo kwa kachitidwe ka bungwe, kupenda kwakukulu pa mphamvu ya maulamuliro.

Ntchito ya Oweruza ndi Makanda m’Kuweruza

Oweruza: Osunga Msika ndi Opanga Zosankha

Oweruza ndiwo a m’bungwelo. Amayang'anira khoti, amalamulira nkhani zonena za anthu ndi zoonekeratu, amalangiza ajuli, ndi kuweruza milandu yapabenchi (milandu yopanda juli) amaweruza. Oweruza a boma amaikidwa ndi Pulezidenti ndi kutsimikizidwa ndi Nyumba ya Malamulo, kutumikira kugamulidwa kwa moyo wonse kuti atsimikizire ufulu. Oweruza a boma angasankhidwe, kusankhidwa, kapena kusankhidwa mwa madongosolo osankhira zinthu oyenerera.

Oweruza amachitanso mbali yaikulu m’kuweruza oimbidwa mlandu. Ayenera kulingalira zitsogozo za lamulo, zenizeni za mlanduwo, mbiri ya woimbidwa mlandu, ndi ziganizo za woimbidwa mlandu. M'madera ena, oweruza amakhala ndi kugamula kokulira; m’mbali zina, zigamulo zofunikira zimakakamiza zosankha zawo. Woweruzayo amawonjezera zigamulo kupyola mayeso, kuchonderera mlandu, ndi misonkhano ya anthu.

Mathayo Aakulu a Oweruza

  • Kuyang’anira ziyeso ndi makutu
  • Kulamulira pa kuchita zinthu mwamwambo (m’maulendo chabe, kuchotsapo, mwamwambo kaamba ka chiweruzo chachidule)
  • Kuyang’anira kalendala ya milandu ndi kugawana milandu
  • Kutsimikizira kuti maloya amatsatira malamulo a makhalidwe abwino
  • Kupereka malangizo alamulo kwa oweruza
  • Kulemba maganizo pa nkhani yowawa

Juries: Mawu a Anthu a M’deralo

Bungwe la Sixth Amendment limatsimikizira kuti anthu a m’khoti adzapatsidwa ufulu woweruza milandu ya milandu imene ingakhale yoposa miyezi 6 ya kumangidwa.

Pali mitundu iŵiri yaikulu ya milandu ya ajuli:

  • Agogo Azikole: [[FLT :1] Opangidwa ndi nzika 16-23, amamva umboni woperekedwa ndi ozenga mlandu kutsimikizira kaya kaya kaya pali chifukwa chonenera mlandu waukulu. Majuli aakulu samagamula mlandu; iwo amangosankha kaya kuwazenga mlandu. Zochitika zawo nzachinsinsi.
  • Juries : [Iwo] kwenikweni 6-12 amamva umboni pamlandu ndi kupereka chigamulo. M'milandu yaupandu, chigamulo chiyenera kukhala chogwirizana (m'khoti la boma ndi pafupifupi maboma onse). M’nkhani zachiŵeniŵeni, kusafuna kuchitika nthaŵi zonse sikumafunidwa; maboma ena amalola kutchuka.

Juries amagamulapo mafunso a zenizeni; oweruza amagamula nkhani za lamulo. Magawo ameneŵa a ntchito ali ofunika kwambiri ku pulogalamu ya oweruza. Komabe, ajuli saali olandira umboni popanda ntchito. Iwo ali otsimikiza okangalika amene amagwiritsira ntchito lamulo monga momwe amalangizidwa ndi woweruza. Nzeru ya kulola nzika kutengamo mbali mwachindunji m’mapangano atamandidwa kukhala chitetezo chotsutsana ndi boma chopotoza ndi monga njira yophunzitsira anthu onse ponena za chilungamo.

Makhoti Achiŵeniŵeni: Kusiyana Kokulira

Ngakhale kuti nyumba ya khoti imodzimodziyo ingakhale ndi milandu, njira, zolinga, ndi zotsatira zake zonse ziŵiri zosiyana kwambiri.

Makhoti a Apandu

Makhoti aupandu amaweruza milandu imene boma (kuzunza) limaimba mlandu munthu kapena gulu mwa kuswa lamulo lokhoza kupereka chilango monga kumangidwa, kulipira, kuyesedwa, kapena imfa. Mtolo wa umboni ndi woposa kukayikira koyenera , muyezo wapamwamba kwambiri m'lamulo. Otengapo mlandu amaphatikizapo woweruza (woimira boma), loya wotetezera, ndi woimbidwa mlandu. Olakwawo angakhale ndi mbali yochepa koma kaŵirikaŵiri amapereka ndemanga pa kuweruza.

Milandu yaupandu imapita ku zigawo: kumangidwa, kuwoneka koyamba, kumvetsera, kutsegulidwa kwa mlandu koyambirira kapena koyambirira kwa ajuli aakulu, kuperekedwa (pamene woimbidwa mlandu aloŵa m’chifunsiro), kupezedwa, kuzenga mlandu, kuzenga mlandu, kuweruza, ndi kuchonderera. Pafupifupi 90% ya milandu yaupandu imathera m’kuchonderera mmalo mwa kuzengedwa mlandu.

Makhoti

Makhoti a boma amathetsa mikangano pakati pa anthu audindo [1] Opatulidwa, abizinesi, kapena mabungwe a boma . Pamene wofufuzayo afunafuna mankhwala (kaŵirikaŵiri chivulazo cha ndalama kapena lamulo) mmalo mwa chilango cha upandu. Mtolo wa chitsimikizo ndi kuyang'ana umboni (mwachidziŵikire kwambiri). Zitsanzo zimaphatikizapo mikangano, kuvulaza katundu, kusagwirizana kwa katundu, malamulo a banja (kapenyedwe, kusunga ana), ndi tsankho la ntchito.

Milandu yachiŵeniŵeni imaphatikizaponso mbali zonga kukhazikitsa chidandaulo, yankho la woimbidwa mlandu, kutulukira (kuphatikizapo zotsatizana ndi zikalata zopempha), kuzenga mlandu, ndi apilo. Milandu yambiri yachiŵeniŵeni imatha mlandu usanaweruzidwe, kuperekedwa, kapena kuperekedwa kwa milandu. Makhoti amalimbikitsa mwamphamvu chigamulo china cha mkangano kuti achepetse kuchuluka kwa milandu ndi ndalama.

Khoti Loweruza milandu

Kuzindikira kuti ndi khoti liti limene lili ndi ulamuliro pa mlandu wina nlofunika. Makhoti a Federal ali ndi ulamuliro wochepa: angangomva milandu imene imabuka pansi pa lamulo la boma (] la mafunso a mlandu ) kapena nkhani zimene zimapangitsa makhoti osiyana ndi maulamuliro osiyanasiyana. Zimenezi zikutanthauza kuti nkhani za tsiku ndi tsiku (aŵiri5,000 ( ulamuliro wa boma )). Makhoti a boma ali ndi ulamuliro wachigamulo.

Milandu ina imaphatikizapo nkhani zonse ziŵiri za boma ndi boma. Zikachitika, zingaikidwe m'bwalo limodzi, kapena khoti la boma lingagwiritsire ntchito ulamuliro wa zachikhalidwe pa boma likunena malinga ngati zichokera ku mfundo zofanana. Kapena, milandu ingachoke ku khoti la boma ndi khoti la boma ngati woimbidwa mlanduyo angakhazikitse ulamuliro wa boma.

Milandu Yochititsa Chidwi Imene Inasonkhezera Khotilo

Zigamulo zingapo za khoti Lalikulu la ku America zalongosola kapangidwe ndi ntchito ya makhoti a ku America:

  • Marbury v. Madison (103) : adakhazikitsa lamulo la kupenda kwachiweruzo, kupatsa makhoti mphamvu ya kulengeza malamulo popanda malamulo.
  • McCulloch v. Maryland [1] (1819): yochirikizidwa ukulu wa boma ndi mphamvu zotchulidwa za Congress.
  • Brown v. Board of Education (1954): Kupatulana kwa mafuko m'masukulu a anthu onse, kusonyeza mphamvu ya makhoti yopangitsa kusintha kwa chikhalidwe cha anthu.
  • Miranda v. Arizona[FLT :2] (1966: Ofuna kusungitsa lamulo kuti adziŵitse okayikira ufulu wawo, kusinthiratu njira za apolisi ndi milandu ya upandu.

Milandu imeneyi ikusonyeza kuti makhoti amathetsa mikangano komanso amaonetsetsa kuti malamulo ayende bwino.

Khotilo Linalimbikitsa Lamulo: Unansi Wogwirizana

Makhoti ndi mabungwe osungitsa malamulo amadalirana. Apolisi amafufuza milandu, amasonkhanitsa umboni, ndi kumanga; kenaka makhoti amagamulapo ngati kugwidwako kunali kololedwa, kaya umboni ukhoza kugwiritsiridwa ntchito, ndi kaya oimbidwa mlandu ali ndi mlandu. Makhoti amafufuza zikalata ndi kumanga, ndipo amapenda machitidwe a apolisi mwa njira zamwambo kutsendereza umboni. Lamulo la kutsendereza, limene mosemphana ndi lamulo linapeza umboni, liri njira yaikulu yosungira apolisi kuŵerengera malamulo alamulo.

Ndiponso, makhoti amayang’anira mlandu wa apandu kupyolera m’milandu ya ufulu wachibadwidwe. Anthu amene amakhulupirira kuti apolisi anaswa zoyenera zawo angasunge mlandu m’khoti la boma pa 42 U.S. 1983, kufunafuna zivulazo ndi chithandizo chachiŵeniŵeni. Msewu umenewu umagwira ntchito pamodzi ndi khoti la apandu kutsimikizira kuti malamulo asungidwa mkati mwa lamulo.

Kufunika kwa Khoti la Makono

Khoti logwira ntchito nlofunika kwambiri pa demokalase. Limatsimikizira kuti malamulo amagwiritsidwa ntchito mofanana, kuti anthu ali ndi malo opezerapo mankhwala a zidandaulo, ndi kuti mphamvu za boma zimapimidwa. Popanda makhoti, lamulo lingakhale lopanda tanthauzo; ufulu walamulo ukakhala papepala. Makhoti amatumikiranso monga mphamvu yolimbitsa pamavuto a ndale, monga momwe zikuonekera m'masankho opikisana (mphinitsa, Brush v. Gore, 2000) ndi zotsutsa ntchito yaudindo.

Komanso, makhoti amalimbikitsa kuti chuma chikhale chotukuka mwa kuonetsetsa kuti mapangano ayamba, kuteteza ufulu wa katundu, ndiponso kupereka chigamulo chodalirika.

Pazifuno za maphunziro, zogwiritsira ntchito zonga U.S.S. khoti limapereka chidziŵitso chatsatanetsatane pa judiary ya boma, pamene kuli kwakuti Legal Information Institute pa Cornell Law School imapereka mafotokozedwe okhutiritsa a mfundo zalamulo. Ophunzira angafufuzenso zosankha zapadera kupyolera mwa project [[ Oyez] Project [[ ku Chicago- Kent , zimene zimapereka kujambula ndi nkhani zofotokoza nkhani.

Kumaliza

Khoti lamilandu la ku America ndilo gulu lopangidwa ndi mbali zambiri lomwe limatumikira monga wopereka chiweruzo, wosunga ufulu walamulo, ndi wosungitsa malamulo alamulo. Ku makhoti ozenga milandu kumene mfundo zachindunji zimagamulidwa choyamba ku bwalo lapamwamba koposa limene limakhazikitsa chitsanzo, mlingo uliwonse umachita mbali yosiyana ndi yofunika kwambiri. Kumvetsetsa mitundu ya makhoti, ntchito zawo, ndi kugwirizana kwa madongosolo a boma nkofunika kwa wophunzira aliyense wa lamulo, mbiri, kapena boma.