Maziko a Zochita Zoyenera ndi Chitetezo Cholingana

The The System Process Claus ndi The Auncial Protection Classias zimaoneka ngati zipilala ziŵiri za lamulo lachimereka la America, zonse ziŵiri zozikidwa pa Kusintha kwa Zaka 14 . Kugwiritsidwa ntchito pamapeto a Nkhondo ya Chiŵeniŵeni, ziganizo zimenezi zinakonzedwa kuti zisungitse ufulu wa anthu amene angomasulidwa kumene ndi kukhazikitsa miyezo ya dziko kuti adzitetezere okha. Zonse ziŵirizi, zimapanga maziko a ufulu wa anthu amakono wodziimira ndi kumasulira kwa malamulo. Kufufuza kowonjezerekaku kupenda chiyambi cha mbiri yakale, kumasulira mfundo zachiweruzo, ndi kuswa malamulo a malamulo aŵiriŵa, ndi kuyang'anikiza kwambiri mmene amagwirira ntchito ponse paŵiri ufulu ndi kufanana kwa anthu.

Pamene kuli kwakuti magawo aŵiriwo akutumikira zifuno zosiyana . Kusumika maganizo pa kuyenera kwa njira ndi chitetezo cha ufulu waukulu, ndi chitetezo chofanana chofuna kuti anthu okhala pamalo ofananawo achitidwe mofanana ndi [1] Malo awo kaŵirikaŵiri atsata. Kumvetsetsa makwalalawa nkofunika kumvetsetsa mmene bwalo lalikulu lamilandu likufikira milandu yovuta yokhudza kusankhana, kudziimira, ndi malire a ulamuliro wa boma. Monga katswiri wa zamalamulo David A. . Struss [1] adawona, ziganizo ziŵirizo kaŵirikaŵiri zimagwira ntchito monga zotetezera zotha kuwonjezera, ndi kuwonjezera milandu ina iliyonse m'nkhani zimene ufulu ndi kufanana kwa boma zilipo.

Nkhani Zake: Magwero a M’chilamulo cha 14 ndi Kumasulira Koyambirira

Demetrition ya 14 inayamba ndi ntchito yaikulu kwambiri ya nyengo ya kukonzanso: mmene anthu a ku Africa omasulidwa chatsopano mamiliyoni anayi angagwirizanitsire Aamereka kukhala nzika za ku America monga nzika zachikwanekwane. Pasadakhale kupeputsidwa kwake, Bill of Rights inagwiritsira ntchito kokha ku boma, ndipo maboma anali omasuka kwambiri kuika malamulo amene anasiyanitsa kapena kulanda ufulu wa anthu. Okonza ufuluwo anafuna kusintha zimenezi mwa kukhazikitsa malamulo a boma pa kachitidwe ka boma.

Kutsutsa ndi Kutenga Malire

Chigawo 1 cha 14th Amendment chimanena kuti: "Palibe Boma limene lidzapanga kapena kutsatitsa lamulo lirilonse limene lidzatsekera mwaŵi kapena kuchinjiriza nzika za United States; ndiponso Boma lirilonse silidzalanda munthu aliyense moyo, ufulu, kapena katundu, popanda njira yoyenerera ya lamulo; kapena kukana munthu aliyense wokhala m’manja mwake kutetezeredwa kwa malamulo. Motero, The Reare Proces and Sectificial Classies ndi mbali ya maufulu, limodzi ndi mwaŵi kapena Immunio Classie, ngakhale kuti womalizayo wakhala wosatha kwenikweni kuyambira pamene Khoti Lalime Lalikulu laŵerenga [FL: 0]. . . . . . . .[18]

Makedzana a Congress avumbula kuti opanga malamulowo anafuna kuti malamulo adziko agwire ntchito mofanana kwa anthu onse, mosasamala kanthu za fuko. Mtsogoleri John Bingham wa ku Ohio, womanga wamkulu wa Chigawo 1, anatsutsa kuti chiganizocho chinali chofunika kukhazikitsa malamulo a Chikalata cha Ufulu ndi kuletsa maboma kukhazikitsa malamulo a ufulu. Pakali pano, lamulo la bungwe la Gwelo Claus (CH) linalingaliridwa kuti lifunikire kulanda moyo, ufulu, kapena katundu aliyense kutsagana ndi malamulo oyenera kutsagana ndi malamulo oyenera .

Chiphunzitso Chogwirizana ndi Kukula kwa Ntchito Yotsatira

Kwa zaka zambiri chakumapeto kwa zaka za zana la 19 ndi kuchiyambi kwa makumi aŵiri, Acts Process Claus inachita mbali yochepa kwambiri m'boma. Komabe, chiphunzitso cha n'kusintha [1]. . . . . njira imene Khoti Lapamwamba linagwiritsira ntchito makonzedwe a ufulu wa Boma ku maboma kudzera ku Demetritions (Mmene Malamulo Opangidwira (Gama Lachisanu ndi Chinayi) Claus (manzere). Chiphunzitso cha [FLT:] chinayamba ndi Getlow v. New York [[FLT:] [25]), imene inagwiritsira ntchito mapangano a ufulu wa kutetezera malamulowo, khoti la Boma pang’onopang'onopang'onopang'ono likuphatikiza pafupifupi Bill Lomauni ndi ufulu wa ufulu wa ufulu wa anthu.

Kumasulira kunali kodzifunira kapena kongoyerekezera. Khotilo linasankha njira, likufunsa ngati kuyenera kwapadera kuli "kuchirikiza kakonzedwe ka chilungamo cha ku America" ndi "kutsimikizira za ufulu wolamulidwa," chinenero chotengedwa ku Justice Cardozo's mu . Connecticut [[FL:1] (1937]. Pofika nthaŵi ya Dican v. Louisiana ndi (1968]), chinenero chimene chinaphatikizapo kuyenera kwa mlandu wa khoti, khotilo linali litaphatikizapo mbali zambiri za chitetezo, ufulu woyamba, ufulu, ndi zitsimikizo zina zosiyanasiyana. Lerolino, ufulu wochepa chabe wa ufulu wa Bills [FLT].

Zoyenera Kuchita: Zipatso Zotchedwa Custanting and Procedical Mide

Njira yoyenerera yagaŵidwa mwamwambo kukhala malingaliro aŵiri osiyana koma ofanana: njira yoyenerera ndi njira yoyenerera yoikidwiratu. Zonse ziŵiri zili ndi mizu yakuya m'mwambo walamulo wa Anglo - America, koma njira zawo zamakono zimadalira kwambiri pa jurisprudefic ya 14

Zimene Amachita: Kuonetsetsa Kuti Zinthu Zikuyenda Bwino

Kulinganiza koyenera kumafuna kuti boma litsatire njira zolungama lisanamanize munthu moyo, ufulu, kapena katundu. Kusintha kwapadera kumachokera ku Mathews v. Eldidge [1] [7], mmene Khoti Lapamwamba likhazikitsa mayeso atatu olinganiza bwino kuti aone zimene ziyenera kuchitika. Makhoti ayenera kulemera: (1) chikondwerero chaumwini choyambukiridwa ndi ntchito ya boma; (2) Upandu wa kusoŵa zinthu zolakwika kupyolera m’madongosolo owonjezereka; ndi (3) phindu la boma, kuphatikizapo mafikiteri ndi katundu wa zauyang'a ntchito zina zimene zikachitidwa.

Makonzedwe ameneŵa agwiritsiridwa ntchito m'nkhani zosaŵerengeka, kuyambira pa kulephera kwa kulephera kwa kusoŵa kwa ntchito kwa anthu onse kufikira ku kutha kwa ntchito ya ophunzira ndi ntchito za chilango. Chidziŵitso chachikulu cha [[FLT: 0] Mathews nchakuti njira yofunikira ndiyo siyekha yoyenerera kuyenerera; mmalo mwake, mlingo wa ntchito yofunikira kudalira pa mtundu wa zinthu zimene zikufunikira pamtengo ndi mawu ozungulirapo pamene kusoŵako kumachitika. Mwachitsanzo, munthu amene akuyang'anizana ndi mapindu aubwino amayenerera kumva asanamve, pamene kuli kwakuti munthu amatsutsa laisensi ya woyendetsa galimotoyo angayenedwe kokha kukhala ndi kumvetsera.

Njira Yofunika Kwambiri Yotetezera Ufulu Wofunika

Njira yoyenerera yapadera njotsutsana kwambiri chifukwa chakuti imaphatikizapo kutetezera kwachiweruzo kwa zoyenera zosatchulidwa mwachindunji m'Malamulo. Chiphunzitsocho chimanena kuti ufulu wina wofunika kwambiri . Wonga ngati kuyenera kwa kukwatira, kuyenera kwa kukhala ndi ana, kuyenera kwa kuthupi, ndi kuyenera kwa kupanga zosankha zaumwini zakuya, nzozikidwa kwambiri m'mbiri ya dziko ndi miyambo kwakuti boma silingawatsutse popanda kulungamitsidwa kokakamiza.

Chiphunzitso chamakono cha njira yapansi ya maukwati chinayamba ndi Griswold v. Connecticut (65), chomwe chinagonjetsa lamulo la boma loletsa kugwiritsa ntchito kolera panthaka kuti linaswa "kuyenerera kukhala chinsinsi cha ukwati. [Chilungamo cha Douglas, kulemba kwa anthu ambiri, otchuka ku malo a kumanja a "penbras" ndi "malamulo a Libeiro" a ufulu, ngakhale kuti nkhani zotsatira zinaletsa kuyenera kwa kuletsa kulera kumbuyo ku Claus Ceas Ceake. [FLD:] v. WFLD [FLT] . [12] .[FLT] [3]

Shashington v. Glucksberg mlandu, wotchulidwa m’nkhani yoyamba, ngwofunika osati kokha chifukwa cha kusungidwa kwake . kuti kuyenera kwa kuthandiza kudzipha sikuli ufulu waukulu . komanso chifukwa cha njira imene anaifotokozera. Chilungamo chachikulu Rehnquist chinakhazikitsa mayeso aŵiri oyesera kuvomereza ufulu watsopano pansi pa Doko: choyamba, kuyenera "kuzika chinsinsi m'mbiri ya dziko lino ndi mwambo"; ndi chachiŵiri, chiyenera kukhala "kumasulira m’chiganizo la ufulu" kuti ngati chikhululukiro kapena chilungamo chingakhaleko ngati chikaperekedwa. Zimenezi zakhala zotsutsa zonse ziŵirizo, ndi kutsutsa kwake kolakwika ndi kuletsa kutetezera ndi kuletsa ufulu ndi kuletsa ufulu.

Chitetezo Cholingana: Kusiya Kusiyana Koma Kukhala Wofanana ndi Kudziŵa Kuchenjera

Malamulo ndi zochita za anthu otsutsa malamulo a ku United States agwirizana kwambiri ndi lonjezo lake loti anthu azichitiridwa mofanana pansi pa lamulo ndipo m’mbiri ya anthu a m’khoti Lapamwamba la America, anthu ambiri ayamba kuyendera limodzi.

Kukula ndi Kugwa kwa Kulekana Koma Kofanana

Mbiri yoyambirira ya Kulinganiza Kuteteza Claus yadziŵika ndi kusiyanitsa koonekeratu pakati pa malemba ake ndi kusungitsa kwake. Pnety v. Ferguson (1996], Khoti Lapamwamba linachirikiza lamulo la Louisiana lofuna kusankhana mafuko pa magalimoto a sitima, kuvomereza "kulekanitsa koma kulingana" chiphunzitso. Woweruza Henry Billings Brown, kulemba kaamba ka anthu ambiri, analingalira kuti Kukonzanso kwa 1449 kunali ndi cholinga chakuti“ kutheketsa kulingana kotheratu kwa mafuko aŵiriwo pamaso pa lamulo," koma kuti kulingana kumeneku sikunafunikire kutha kwa kusiyana kwa chikhalidwe kozikidwa pa fuko. Chigamulo chinapereka chilo cha lamulo kwa Jim Kirow ku South ndi kuteteza Classian kwa zaka makumi asanu ndi limodzi. Chigamulo cha Unicle

. Woweruza Wamkulu Earl Warren, analemba kaamba ka Khoti lachigwirizano, adakhulupirira kuti fuko m'masukulu a anthu onse linaswa Chitetezo cha Claus chifukwa chinapangitsa "kudziona kukhala wotsika" mwa ana aang'ono "angayambukire mitima yawo ndi maganizo awo mwanjira yosayembekezereka kuchotsedwa. Khotilo linalengeza kuti "Masukulu a maphunziro salingana," lamulo limene posapita nthaŵi likafikira ku malo ena a anthu onse. [FLT:] BB]

Kukula kwa Kupenda Umisiri

Chitetezero chamakono chofanana ndi cha julprudence chalinganizidwa kuzungulira dongosolo la milongo ya kufufuza. Malamulo amene amaika magawo ozikidwa pa ausunsformations [ monga fuko, mtundu, ndi, m'malemba ena, kutsalira kumayang'aniridwa [[FLT:] kupendedwa [[FLT]], kutanthauza kuti boma liyenera kusonyeza kuti lamulolo nlolinganizidwiratu kutumikira chiwongolala cha boma. Malamulo ozikidwa pa [FL:] [FL:]] [4]] [ziyeso zopendedwa] [FLT:] [5] [zithunzi zomveka ndi zolakwika], zimene zimafuna kutsimikizira lamulo logwirizana ndi lamulo logwirizana ndi lamulo logwirizana ndi lamulo logwirizana ndi lamulo. [FFUT]

Malo otsatizanawo anayambitsidwa pang’onopang’ono zaka makumi angapo. Muyezo wofufuza kwambiri kaamba ka kugaŵikana kwa mafuko unakhazikitsidwa bwino lomwe mu Korendatsu v. United States (19444) (ngakhale kuti Khoti linagwiritsira ntchito mwa mbiri yoipa kuchirikiza chigawo cha Japanese cha Amereka) ndipo pambuyo pake kutsimikizika kolimba m'zochitika zonga [[FLT:] Livev. [FLT:] v. [FLT] [67] [197] [malamulo osiyana], amene anagwetsa pansi malamulo oletsa kuswa ndi kukonzanso kwa amuna. Kufufuza kwanthaŵi zambiri kunatuluka kuchokera ku [FLT:] Conf. Borven v [FLD] [FFFF:] [6] [197], kumene kunakhazikitsa lamulo losiyana lakumwa kwa zaka za ku progalamu.

Kusokonezeka kwa Ntchito Yofunika ndi Kutetezedwa Kofanana

Malo abwino koposa opangira ligigation akukhala pa misewu yoyenerera ndi chitetezo chofanana. Pamene lamulo kapena kachitidwe ka boma kachititsa ponse paŵiri ufulu waukulu ndi kunyumwira kapena kugawana kopeka, makhoti ayenera kusanthula mlanduwo kupyolera m'malens a ziganizo zonse ziŵiri. Kusanthulaku kaŵirikaŵiri kumatulutsa kulingalira kolemera ndi kowonjezereka kwa lamulo la malamulo.

Njira Yofunika Kwambiri Yodzitetezera

Njira imodzi yomvetsetsera unansiwo ndiyo kuti lamulo lofunikira limakhala ndi malo: ngati kuyenera kuli kofunika, boma silingapotoza popanda kulungamitsa kokakamiza, mosasamala kanthu kuti kukanako kuli kosankha kapena kwachilengedwe chonse. Chitetezo chofanana chimawonjezera muyalo wowonjezereka: ngakhale ngati lamulo silimamaniza munthu aliyense ufulu waukulu, lingaswebe malamulo ngati lisankha pa maziko osayenerera. Motero, zigawo ziŵirizo zimagwira ntchito pamodzi kutsimikizira kuti ufulu wina aliyense amatetezeredwa ndi kuti palibe aliyense amene ali wotetezeredwa kaamba ka kuchitiridwa mosayenera popanda chifukwa chabwino.

Phunziro la Nkhani: Obergefell v. Hodges (2015)

Chosankha cha Obergefell v. Hodges chimaimira mwinamwake kuonekeratu ndi kukondwerera ukwati wa ntchito yoyenerera ndi kulinganiza kwa kutetezera kofanana m'mbiri ya Khoti Lalikulu. Woweruza Kennedy anakhulupirira kuti okwatirana audindo amodzi ali ndi ufulu wokwatira pa malamulo onse aŵiri. Khoti loyamba linasanthula funso lakugonana pansi pa njira yoyenerera, kusonyeza kuyenera kwa kukwatira monga ufulu waukulu wozikidwa pa "chinsi pa mfundo za ufulu wa munthu aliyense payekha" ndi "ziphunzitso zazikulu za mwambo wathu walamulo" kenaka linasintha kukhala chitetezo chofanana, kugogomezera kuti okwatirana asakhale okwatira okwatira osiyana ndi "kuchotsa ufulu wa ogwirizana a pakati pa anthu olingana" ndi "kulinganiza pakati pa kulingana kwa " mfundo za pakati pa kulingana kwa ."

Chimene chinapangitsa lingalirolo kukhala lodabwitsa chinali kuumirira kwa Kennedy kuti maganizo aŵiriwo sali ogwirizana koma ogwirizana: "Madeti a Procession Claus ndi Kutetezera kwa Alingana ndi kugwirizana kwa Claus n’zogwirizana kwambiri, ngakhale kuti iwo amakhazikitsa malamulo a kudziimira. Ufulu wotsimikizirika ndi ufulu wosungidwa ndi kutetezedwa ndi kutetezedwa kofanana ungakhale pa malamulo osiyana ndipo sakhala nthaŵi zonse wogwirizana, komabe m’zochitika zina iliyonse ingakhale yophunzitsidwa ponena za tanthauzo ndi kufika kwa inayo. Mgwirizano umenewu umasonyeza kuti m’nkhani zina, ufulu ndi kulingana sizili chabe mfundo ziŵiri zosiyana koma mbali ziŵiri za kuwona kwa ulemu wa munthu.

Phunziro la Nkhani: Long the Virginia (1967)

Pafupifupi zaka makumi asanu isanafike, Khoti linagwera , Khoti mu Lovang v. Virginia [1] mofananamo anaphatikiza njira zoyenerera ndi kusanthula kofanana. Mlandu unaphatikiza lamulo la Virginia lomwe linagamula ukwati wa mafuko osiyanasiyana. Malingaliro a Woweruza Warren a khoti lachiya lakuya adaswa lamulo la Feal Classian e . Chifukwa chakuti linazikidwa pa maodeti a fuko [1] ndi Claus Claus E. Chifukwa chakuti linaswa lamulo la maziko la kukwatira. Khoti linakana kusiyanitsa mafunso aŵiriwo, kuwona kuti lamulo "akhomalungamidwa" pansi pa makonzedwe. [FL:]

Mmene Zinthu Zimaonekera Pamalo Oloŵera

Akatswiri a zamalamulo apereka malingaliro osiyanasiyana kulongosola kugwirizana pakati pa njira yoyenerera ndi chitetezo chofanana. Ena, monga Profesa Kenneth Karset m'nkhani yake yotchuka "Ufulu wa Intimate Association," akutsutsa kuti magawo aŵiri pamodzi amatetezera lingaliro lofala la "utsogoleri" kapena "indididididididist" imene imaphatikizapo ufulu ndi kulingana. Ena, mofanana ndi Pulofesa Reva Siegel, agogomezera njira zimene zitetezero zingagwiritsidwe ntchito kutsutsa miyambo yakale imene imagwiritsira ntchito kumasulira zoyenera. Komabe ena amatsutsa kuti malamulowo ayenera kusungidwa moyenerera kuti asunge mfundo yomveka ndi yogwirizana ndi mfundo iliyonse.

Maprogramu a Panthaŵi Yatsopano ndi Kutsutsana Kopitirizabe

Kuphatikiza pa ufulu wovota ndi kulowa m’dziko loyenera lobalira, anthu ndi makhoti akulimbana ndi milandu imene imafunika kusamala kwambiri ndi mfundo zonse ziŵirizo.

Kuvomereza Ufulu ndi Malamulo a Kusunga

Malamulo ozindikiritsa akhala oimira a ndale zadziko za ku America, ndi ochirikiza akutsutsa amaletsa chinyengo ndi otsutsa amene amatsutsa mopambanitsa kuti amatsutsa anthu ochepa, okalamba, ndi ovota otsika. Zitokoso ku malamulo oterowo kaŵirikaŵiri zimatchula zonse ziŵiri njira zofunikira ndi chitetezo chofanana. Chigomeko chofananacho chimakhudza mphamvu ya malamulo ameneŵa pa osankhidwa ochepa, kutchula umboni wa masamu wakuti nzika za anthu ochepa sizingapeze chizindikiritso chofunikira. Chigomeko chofunikira chimagogomezera njira yofunika kuyenera kwa kuvota ndi kulemera kumene kumafunikira pa kuyenerako.

Khoti Lapamwamba la Indiana linakambirana nkhani zimenezi m'milandu monga ngati Crawford v. Marion County Board (2008), imene inachirikiza lamulo la voti ya Indiana pankhope yake pansi pa kusanthula kozikidwa pa mtolo. Woweruza Stevens anagwiritsa ntchito zimene zinathandiza kupenda maziko, kutsimikizira kuti zolemera za lamulo zinali zopereŵera ndipo zofuna za boma kuletsa chinyengo ndi kusunga chidaliro cha anthu onse m'masankho. Komabe, khotilo linasiya kutsegula kuthekera kwa mavuto openyedwa, ndipo pambuyo pake lapitiriza kuyesa malamulo a boma ofufuza pansi pa malamulo onse aŵiri.

Kusamuka Ndiponso Kulanda Ufulu wa Anthu Osamuka

Lamulo la kutumiza anthu ndilo malo kumene njira yake ndi chitetezo chofanana kaŵirikaŵiri zimayendera pamodzi koma kumene mphamvu yaikulu ya boma pa nkhani za kusamuka imasokoneza kupenda zeru. Anthu, kuphatikizapo osamukira kudziko, ndi "persons" m'tanthauzo la Serge Process Claus ndipo chifukwa chake ali ndi ufulu wa kutetezera kwa procedtural pamene ayang'ana kuchotsedwa. Khoti Lapamwamba linazindikira lamulo limeneli mu . Zadvinas v. Davis (2001], limene linakhulupirira kuti boma silingagwirizanitse lamulo losasintha la kuchotsedwa kwa nthaŵi yonse pambuyo pa kuchotsedwa, monga momwe kutsekeredwako kukaswa komalizira, monga momwe kupululidwako kukaswa kwa lamulo koyenera.

Zitokoso zolingana m'nkhani ya kusamuka zakhala zosapambana, m'mbali chifukwa khotilo lakhala likugwiritsira ntchito muyezo wapamwamba wa kuikidwa kwa boma kwa kusamuka. Mathews v. Diaz, Bwalo linasunga lamulo la boma limene linakana Medicasus mapindu kwa anthu osaloledwa kwa zaka zosachepera zisanu, polingalira kuti "malamulo a United States onena za kuchitiridwa kwa alendo ali nkhani zapadera za kugamula kwa lamulo ndi ulamuliro. Komabe, malamulo a boma omwe sanachitepo kanthu zachizezezezeze. Mu [FL:2] Abuni - v. United States: [FT. [FT.2]

Ufulu Woberekana ndi Kulingana kwa Mabanja

Malo alamulo okhudza ufulu wobereka asintha kwambiri m’zaka zaposachedwapa. Asanabwere ku [FLT] Dobbs v. Jackson Women’s Health Organization (2022]), imene inalamulira [ Roe [[[FLT] ndi [FLT]] [[FLT]] [4] ['''''''s's's's's . Casey [[FLT] Organization] [1992] ndipo inakhulupirira kuti malamulo a m'malamulo sapereka kuchotsa mimba, ufulu wobereka unali wokhudzana kwambiri m'zochitika zapasa. Komabe, akatswiri ambiri ndi ochirikiza ambiri ananena kwa nthaŵi yaitali kuti kuchotsa mimba kuchotsa mimba kumakhalanso chitetezo chofanana chifukwa chakuti amachitira zinthu zapadera za akazi ndi kusonyeza kusiyanitsa kwa mbiri yakale.

Jasitisi Ginsburg anali wochirikiza wotchuka wa lingaliro limeneli. M'lingaliro lake logwirizana mu Stenberg v. Carhart [2000], adatsutsa kuti "kulimbana ndi malamulo osayenerera pa kuchotsa mimba sikuyesa kuchirikiza lingaliro lina lachinsinsi; mmalo mwake, kumasumika maganizo pa ufulu wa mkazi kuti adziŵe njira yake ya moyo, ndi kusangalala ndi unzika wolingana. [Pst- Dobs , ena akubweretsa zitokosokoso ku chitetezero chofanana cha kuchotsa mimba, akumatsutsa kuti malamulo ameneŵa amasankhana pa maziko a chisembwere ndi kutetezera Classian. Ngati njira imeneyi idzapambana, koma imasonyeza kuteteza koyenera ndi kuteteza anthu oyenera.

Chilungamo Chaupandu Chisintha ndi Kusiyana Mafuko

Dongosolo lachiweruzo la upandu limavumbula kusagwirizana kwakukulu pakati pa njira yoyenerera ndi chitetezo cholingana pafupifupi pamlingo uliwonse. Zotetezera za m’makonzedwe monga kuyenera kwa uphungu, kuyenera kwa kuzenga mlandu mwachilungamo, ndi chiletso cha chilango chankhanza ndi chachilendo, ncholinga chotsimikizira kuti oimbidwa mlandu amachitiridwa mosakondera. Komabe nkhaŵa zolingana za chitetezo zimabuka pamene chitetezo chimenechi chikugwiritsiridwa ntchito m’njira yosiyana ndi fuko. Khoti Lapamwamba lalimbana ndi kudutsana kumeneku m’milandu yokhudza kusankhana mafuko m’chiweruzo cha ajuli, kutsutsa kusiyanitsa, ndi machitachita apolisi.

Mu Batson v. Kentucky [FLT: 1] (1986), Bwalo lamilandu linatsutsa kuti kugwiritsira ntchito kwa woweruza kuchotsa zitokoso zozikidwa pa fuko kuchotsapo ajuli oweruza otsutsana ndi Sungira a Suclerity Claus . Chigamulo chimene chinaperekedwa ku bungwe lovuta la milandu yofuna kuzenga milandu kuti achitire makhoti atatu pamene woimbidwa mlanduyo akudzutsa chito: choyamba, woimbidwa mlanduyo ayenera kupanga primia facie kusonyeza tsankhu; yachiŵiri, woweruza ayenera kupereka mafotokozedwe ovuta a fuko kaamba ka kuukira kwa chiwopsezo; ndi lachitatu, bwalo lamilandu liyenera kugamula ngati woimbidwa ali ndi cholinga. Pamene [FLP.] B. [FLT.FFFFFFF] Ayenera kusuliridwa kwa lamulo la lamulo la lamulo lothandiza kuteteza anthu aupandu.

Kumaliza: Tanthauzo Lokhalitsa la Kuloŵera

Kugwirizanitsa njira yoyenera ndi chitetezo cholingana si kungofuna kudziŵa za chiphunzitso koma maziko ofunika kwambiri odziŵira mmene malamulowo amatetezera ufulu wa munthu aliyense m’chitaganya chosinthasintha. Pamene Khoti Lapamwamba likuyang’anizana ndi mavuto atsopano . Kuchokera ku chinsinsi cha foni kufikira ku kukondera kwa anthu ndi kuyenera kwa kujambula pakati pa ziganizo ziŵiri zimenezi zidzapitirizabe kuumba kuyambika kwa lamulo la malamulo.

Imodzi ya maphunziro ofunika kwambiri kuchokera ku nkhani zotchulidwazo njakuti njira yoyenerera ndi chitetezo chofanana siiri yopikisana koma yogwirizana. Ufulu wopanda kufanana ungakhale mwaŵi kwa anthu oŵerengeka; kulingana popanda ufulu kungakhale lonjezo losaphula kanthu. Pamene makhoti azindikira kugwirizana kwakukulu pakati pa malamulo ameneŵa, amapereka mawu owonjezereka ku masomphenya a chitaganya a 1449 Demendment a anthu amene onse ali ndi ufulu ndi olingana ndi malamulo. Monga momwe Woweruza Kennedy analembera OFLT:1] Agwederect [[[FLD:1], "mibadwo imene inalemba ndi kuvomereza kutetezera kwa ufulu ndi kulinganiza kwa zaka 147 sikunayesetse kudziŵa mopepuka ufulu m’zikulu zake zonse, ndi kusungidwa kwa mibadwo yamtsogolo kutetezera anthu onse kuti apeze ufulu.

Kuŵerenga Kowonjezereka ndi Ziŵiya