Ziyeneretso za woimbidwa mlanduyo zili ngati lamulo lalamulo la America, kutsimikizira kuti anthu ayang'anizana ndi ulamuliro wa boma ndi chitetezo cha madera ndi zitetezero za madera. Pamutu pa ufulu umenewu pali bungwe la Century Procession Claus, lopezeka m'madement achisanu ndi 14. Lamulo limeneli likuteteza ufulu wa boma mwa kulamula mwa kulamula chilungamo, chidziŵitso, ndi mwaŵi watanthauzo. Kufufuza kotsatiraku kutsata chiyambi, mbali, ndi magwiridwe amakono a CY Procesclaime, ndi kusumika pa mmene limapangira ufulu wa oimbidwa mlanduwo m'chiweruzo chaupandu.

Chiyambi ndi Maziko a Lamulo

Malamulo a ku United States akhazikitsa lamulo loyenera mu 1791, lopangidwa ndi Magna Carta lotsimikizira kuti “palibe munthu womasuka amene adzam’tsekera... kusiyapo chiweruzo chololedwa cha anzake kapena lamulo la dzikolo. Lamulo la Findth Amendment, lovomerezedwa mu 1791, linakhazikitsa lamulo limeneli la boma lolamulira: “Palibe munthu... adzalandidwa moyo, ufulu, kapena katundu, popanda njira yoyenerera ya lamulo. Pambuyo pa nkhondo yachiŵeniŵeniŵe, Demende la 145 linafutukula lamulo loletsa malamulowo. Onse pamodzi, mfundo zimenezi zimakhazikitsa dongosolo la malamulo aŵiri: njira yoyenerera: njira zoyenerera, zimene zimalamulira ntchito zaufulu asanachotsedwe, ndi zofunikira, zimene zina zimatetezera ufulu wa boma kuletsa ufulu wa boma.

Kuzama kwa Malo Okhalamo Zinthu

Kuyenera kwa lamulo kumafuna kuti kachitidwe kalikonse ka boma komana munthu moyo, ufulu, kapena katundu kukhaleko ndi njira zokwanira. M'milandu yaupandu, zimenezi zimatembenuza ufulu wolinganiza kukhazikitsa mlandu. Khoti Lapamwambalo lanena mobwerezabwereza kuti “zofunika zazikulu kwambiri” zikuphatikizapo:

  • Tnoice ya milandu ndi mtundu wa zochitika.
  • A mlandu wabwino pamaso pa khoti lauchete ndi lopanda tsankho.
  • Mwayi wopereka umboni ndi kudutsa mboni zotsutsa
  • [[MLT:0] Kuimira kwapamalikole kumene kuli kopindulitsa ndipo, ngati kuli kofunikira, kutsegulidwa ndi boma.
  • A chosankha chozikidwa pa umboni ndi lamulo loperekedwa m'mutu.

Malamulo ameneŵa sali zolinga wamba; agwiritsiridwa ntchito ndi kuyeretsedwa m'zochitika zosaŵerengeka. Mwachitsanzo, mu Goldberg v. Kelly (1970), khoti linaona kuti olandira chithandizo amayenera kumvetsera pamaso pa wopanga chigamulo. Pamene kuli kwakuti nkhani ya anthu, mfundo zimamveka m’nkhani ya upandu, kutsimikizira njira yoyenererayo yoyang'anizana ndi kuchotsedwa kwa mapindu imakhala yoyenerera kuyankha kwa wopanga chigamulo.

Ufulu Wopereka Uphungu: Gideon ndi Wainwright

Mwinamwake njira yoyenerera ya chithunzi cholamulira ndiyo Gideon . Wainwright . (1963). Clarence Gideon, wopatuka wosauka, adaimbidwa mlandu wa kuswa ndi kuloŵa m'chipinda cha chigawo ku Florida. Opanda loya chifukwa chakuti lamulo la Florida linapereka uphungu wa milandu yaikulu, Gideoni anadzitetezera yekha ndipo anaimbidwa mlandu. Kundende, anapereka chifunsiro ku Khoti Lapamwamba, akutsutsa kuti Kusintha kwa Sikisi kunali kofunika ndi kugwiritsidwa ntchito ku maufumu kudzera m'Cend Claus. Khoti linavomereza pamodzi, kuweruza koyambirira mu [FOLD:] Bradthits. V [FF:] [12] [192]

Kuyesedwa Mwamsanga

Singth Amendment imatsimikizira “kuzengedwa mlandu kwa anthu,” chitetezo choikidwa ku maboma kudzera ku Malamulo a 144th Demendment’s Claus . Kuyenera kumathandiza zinthu zambiri: kuletsa kumangidwa kwa milandu kosadziŵika, kuchepetsa nkhaŵa ndi kukayikira kwa anthu zimene zikutsagana ndi milandu, ndi kutsimikizira kuti umboni sutha. Barker v. Wingo [7], Khoti Lalikulu linavomereza kuyesa zinthu zinayi: kuchedwa, chifukwa cha kuchedwa, kuimbidwa mlandu, ndi kukondera kwa woimbidwa mlandu. Akungoyembekezera chaka chimodzi choposa, koma katunduyo akuimbidwabe kuti asonyeze kuti avomereze kuti akuvomereza.

Chitetezo pa Kuopsa kwa Madzi

Demendment yachisanu imanena kuti palibe munthu amene “adzazengedwa mlandu umodzimodziwo kuti aikidwe kaŵiri kuupandu wa moyo kapena chiŵalo. Chitetezero chimenechi, chikugwira ntchito ku maiko mu Benton v. Maryland . , kutetezera woimbidwa mlanduyo (1969]) (1969). Kuyesa bwino kuti kaya kulakwa kulikonse kungafunike chitsimikiziro cha chinthu chinacho [FLT: FF]

Njira Yofunika ndi Ufulu Wofunika Kwambiri

Pamene kuli kwakuti kulinganiza kwa malamulo kumalamulira mmene ya ntchito ya boma, njira yoyenerera yoikidwiratu imaikira malire ndi zimene . Kuchuluka kwa malamulo amene amalepheretsa ufulu waukulu. Khoti Lapamwamba lazindikira zoyenera zina monga “zozikidwa kwambiri m'mbiri ndi mwambo wa mtundu uno [1] kuti zifunikira chitetezo chokulira. Kwa oimbidwa mlanduwo, njira yoyenerera ya boma ingaletse kukhoza kuphwanya malamulo ena kapena kupereka chilango.

  • Kumanja ku malo achinsinsi - kudziŵika mu [FLT :] Griswold v. Connecticut (65) ndi kufutukulidwa mu Roe v. Wade [197]) ndi
  • Kumanja ku umphumphu wathupi [[FLT :] – malire akugamula kuloŵa m'thupi la munthu, monga ngati opaleshoni yodzifunira kapena mankhwala okakamiza (onani Shashington . Harper [FLT :⁠ 3) (1990).
  • Kumanja kwa kholo ndi kulera ana -'''''''''''''zochitika zophatikizapo kutha kwa ufulu wa makolo kapena kuchotsa ana panyumba.

Komabe, anthu amakakamizika kuweruza milandu chifukwa cha malamulo opondereza, ndipo chitetezero cha anthu amene akulimbana ndi malamulo opondereza, chingakhalenso chimene chingawononge khalidwe la achikulire kapena kuchepetsa ufulu wa munthu payekha m’njira zimene zimakhumudwitsa chilungamo chachikulu.

Milandu Yosonyeza Kuzengedwa Ufulu

Zigamulo zingapo za khoti Lalikulu zasintha ufulu wa oimbidwa mlanduwo mwa kugwiritsa ntchito mfundo yakuti apolisi ndi oweruza milandu apolisi ndi kuti apolisiwo apereke milanduyo.

Map v. Ohio (1961): Ulamuliro wa Excloion

Asanaike Mapp . Umboni wopezeka mwa kufufuza kosakhala kwa lamulo ukhoza kugwiritsidwa ntchito m'malamulo a boma. Nyumba ya Dollree Map’s inafufuzidwa popanda chilolezo chotsimikizirika ponena za kuphulitsa bomba; apolisi anapeza zonyansa, zimene anaimbidwa mlandu. Khoti Lapamwamba linasintha, kuchititsa kuti lamulo la Opaleshoni la Folsed Reformation likhale loletsa kugwiritsa ntchito kosaloledwa ndi lamulo kwa boma. Dollree Mappe anafufuza nyumbayo popanda chilomo chokhudza malamulo kudzera mu Programme ya 145 Claus. Woweruza Clark analemba kuti “kufunikira kuweruza umphumphu wachikidwa m'malamulo. Chigamulo cha Apolisi, kuwakakamiza kupeza umboni kapena kuyang'nkhanitsa kwa mayeruza.

Miranda ndi Arizona (1966): Custodial Introgramation Chenjezo

Mwinamwake mwamuna wotchuka kwambiri wofuna kuchititsa zinthu, Mainda v. Arizona . analankhula kwa anthu ogwirizana kufunsa apolisi. Ernesto Miranda, munthu wosauka ndi wodwala maganizo, anaulula kuti abadwe ndi kugwiriridwa chigololo pambuyo pa maola ambiri asanawuzidwe kuti anali ndi ufulu wa kukhala chete kapena kufunsa loya. Khoti Lapamwamba linagamula kuti kufunsa mafunso ndiko koyenera; chifukwa chake, mwaŵi wa Kusintha Koyamba kutsutsana ndi kudziganizira mwiniyo kumafunikira kukufuna kuchenjezedwa za ufulu wawo [[FLT:] asananenedwe kuti adauzidwa kuti ali ndi ufulu wa kufunsa. Maya ndi mayeso apolisi ayamba kukhala apamwamba ndi chikhalidwe cha anthu ambiri. [FLT]

Maryland (1963): Umboni Wosonyeza Kuti Malo Apita Patsogolo

Kutsatira kwake kukufunanso kuti oweruza atulutse umboni wovomerezeka kwa woimbidwa mlanduyo. Brady v. Maryland . . Khoti linanena kuti kupondereza umboni wa zinthu zakuthupi ndizo lamulo lopitiriza kwa aloyansi. Zolembedwa, kapena kuyesa zotsatirapo. Zikalatazo zimatulutsa “pamene umboni uli wokhudzana ndi mlandu kapena chilango. [[FLT:] [FLT] [FLT] ndi lamulo lopitiriza lokhudza oweruza milandu kuti aperekeze chilichonse chimene chingathandize kuteteza. Kufufuza kwamakono kumaphatikizapo umboni waumboni, kusapereka umboni, ndi kuchitapo kanthu mogwirizana ndi mboni. Kupotoza [FFL:] [FF:] [FLT]

Batson ndi Kentucky (1986): Kuthetsa Tsankho la Utundu m’Chisankho cha Jury

Kuyenera kwa oweruza opanda tsankho kulibe lamulo ngati oweruza atha kuchotsa oweruza oweruzawo kokha chifukwa cha fuko. Mu Batson . Kentucky[[FL:1], Bwalo Lapamwamba linavomereza kuti kugwiritsira ntchito mavuto oletsa kuukira kwa fuko kumatsutsana ndi kutetezera kwa Claus, kumenenso kumasungidwa kupyola mchitidwe wofunikira m'mayeso aupandu. Khotilo limakhazikitsa mayeso atatu: (1) Mkwiyo ayenera kupanga mlandu wa kusankhana fuko; (2) woweruzayo ayenera kupereka mafotokozedwe a fuko; (3) woweruza kaya mafotokozedwewo ali m'tsogolo. [FL:] BFFFF:3] Ayenera kupenyerera kutsutsa kwa utundu. [2] [5]

Zotsatirapo za Chiweruzo Cholungama chamakono cha Apandu

Malamulo olembedwa m’milandu yosiyana kwambiri akugwira ntchito m’zinthu zosiyanasiyana zaupandu. Milandu yambiri sipita ku mlandu; kupempha kupempha, ndi kutsekeredwa m’ndende n’kofala. Kudera nkhaŵa koyenera kwakhala kukusumikidwa pa njira zimene zimachitika kalekale chigamulo chisanaweruzidwe.

Plea Bargaining ndi Waiver ya Ufulu Woyenerera

Oposa 95% a boma ndi zitsimikiziro za boma zakhala ndi kuchonderera kochitidwa mmalo mwa ziyeso. Zotsatira zake nzamphamvu. Kuchonderera kwa liwongo kumatsutsa mogwira bwino ufulu wonse woyesa: kuyenera kwa kupereka uphungu, kukangana, kuweruza, ndi kukhala chete. Khoti Lapt lakhala loumiriza kuti zifunsiro zikhale, modzifunira, ndi anzeru, koma kuti zikhale zokakamiza, kuyang'anizana ndi chilango chachikulu ngati waimbidwa mlandu. Morgis v. FFFFF: Miris . FTY: [2] Cholakwa chodziŵika monga “chilango. [[FLT:] Mu .Lafler v. Cooper [FLD:1] ndi wochirikiza mphamvu ya kuchirikiza.

Zimene Anatulukira ndi Umboni Uli ndi Umboni Wogwirizana

Kupyola Brady . Malamulo amakono opezedwa amasiyana kwambiri ndi ulamuliro. Federal Pagers of Criminal Procediture imafuna oweruza kuvumbula mawu a woimbidwa mlandu, zolembedwa zisanachitike, ndi zolembedwa ndi zinthu ndi umboni wa zinthu ku mlanduwo, limodzinso ndi umboni waukatswiri. Maboma ambiri ali ndi “wowonse "wolo" malamulo. Komabe, malamulo otetezera, ochulukitsitsa, ndi umboni wa makono ungalepheretse kutulukira kwatanthauzo. Njira yake imatsutsidwa mowonjezereka pamene woimbidwayo alibe mpata wowonetsera umboni wowo asanagamukire kutsutsa kapena kuyesa. Malamulo ena alankhula zimenezi kupyolera pa“ malamulo otetezera, amene angakweze, ndipo amawonjezera ntchito ya Asanu ndi kuyendetsa ntchito yake yoyenerera pamene boma likuvomereza.

Kupereka Mlandu ndi Kusamvana

Malamulo a Chigamulo cha Sixte Demendment satha ndi chitsimikizo. Kuyenera kwa chisanu ndi chimodzi kwa kugamula kwa oweruza [1] Kuperekedwa ku maboma kudzera ku Demendment ya 144 .requares kuti chenicheni chimene chimawonjezera chigamulo cha lamulo chiyenera kupezedwa ndi oweruza osakayikira kwambiri (]] Apprendi v. New Jersey , 2000]). Mofananamo, [[FLT:] Miler v. Alabama . [12] (202] chigamu chimene chimakhulupirira kuti kuikidwa m’ndende popanda ana chimawononga chiletso cha 8 chimaswa malamulo ankhanza ndi chilango chachilendo, chimene chimagwiritsa ntchito njira yothandiza kutsutsa kuwonjezera kuchuluka kwa mtundu wa anthu. Komabe, ngakhalenso kutsutsa kutsutsa kutsutsa kulephera kugwiritsa ntchito koyenera kutsutsa njira yoyenerera ya kutsutsa njira yoyenerera.

Mavuto Amene Adzabwere

Ngakhale kuti pakhala zaka zambiri kuti chiphunzitso chiyambe, lonjezo la kuchitika kwa zinthu lidakali lopanda ungwiro. Zitsenderezo zamakono ndi kumangidwa, kusakwanira kwa ndalama zodzitetezera, ndi kusintha kwa luso la zopangapanga kwa mwamsanga, zikutsimikizira malire a zitsimikizo za Konsichushoniyo.

Kusagwirizana Kochuluka ndi Kusiyana Mafuko

United States amatsekera m’ndende anthu oposa 1.2 miliyoni, liŵiro loposa kasanu kapena ka khumi la maiko ena otukuka. Anthu akuda akuponyedwa m’ndende pafupifupi kuŵirikiza kasanu chiŵerengero cha Aamereka achiyera. Kusiyana kumeneku sikuli kokha chifukwa cha kuchuluka kwa kulakwa kosiyana; kumasonyeza kukondera kwa dongosolo m'mapolisi, kulamula, kutsimikiza, ndi kuweruza kumene kungaswe mbali yofanana yotetezera ya kachitidwe ka upandu. Khoti Lapamwamba lavomereza kuti tsankho la fuko m'makhoti, makamaka, limachepetsa chidaliro cha anthu onse m’makhoti. Komabe, kuchepetsako kuchuluka kwa kuikidwa kwa ntchito yopereka ntchito ya kuyendetsa ntchito kukuwonjezera nkhaŵa kuti ntchito yake ichitike bwino ndi kulamula kwa ndale zandale chifukwa cha kuvuta.

Kuchinjiriza Kosakwanira

Gedeon Kuyenera kwa kupereka uphungu kulibe kanthu ngati loya woikidwayo ali wolemetsedwa, wodetsedwa, kapena wosagwira ntchito. Otetezera ambiri a maofesi a anthu amanyamula milandu mazana angapo pa maloya pachaka, kusiya nthaŵi yochepa ya kufufuza, kulankhulana kwa wowalemba, kapena kukonzekera. Khoti Lapamwamba lakhazikitsa chipilala chapamwamba cha chithandizo chotsimikizira kukhala chosagwira ntchito ( . Washington ., 1984), yofuna zonse ziŵiri kulephera ndi kutuluka kwa tsankhuna lakunja. Kulephera kwa kamodzi kwa loyankhunitsa milandu yamalikulu ndi mapangano a bwalo lamilandu (GUlton). Komabe, ku Florida, chiwonjezo chandale, ndi kulipira ndalama zandale zoyenerera.

Luso la Zaluso ndi Kuchuluka kwa Zinthu

Luso la zopangapanga lamakono limayambitsa zinthu zatsopano. Apolisi amagwiritsa ntchito makina a GPS, maselo-sitiki, ma algoritime ongowagwiritsa ntchito nkhope, angasinthe zofunika za mwambo kuti zikhale ndi zifukwa ndi mwina. Karpaent v. United States[FL:1] [2018], Khoti Lapamwambalo linakhulupirira kuti kulowa m'selo ya malo apamwamba kumapanga kufunafuna njira ya Kane yovomerezeka. Chigamulo chinadalira kwambiri pa katundu ndi zinthu zachinsinsi zimene zimateteza. Koma maluso ambiri ofufuza za magetsi ndi kuneneratu za kukonzanso. Oteteza zinthu za m'makedzana kusoŵa njira yophunzirira kapena kugwiritsa ntchito. Oteteza zinthu zamakono amalephera kupeza chidziŵitso cha m'malamulo kapena kumbuyo kwa ma a a almolement, kugalamu yoŵerengedwa ndi kutsimikizira kuti apeze chigamu.

Kusunga Zotsatira Zomwe Zikufunikira M’tsogolo

CHUMA CHA Claus si kudziphera okha; chimafunikira kukhala maso kosalekeza kuchokera ku mabwalo, opanga malamulo, ndi nzika. Ufulu wa woimbidwa mlandu ngwamphamvu kokha monga njira zimene zimawakakamiza. M'nyengo ya kuchonderera, kutumiza anthu ambiri, ndi kuweruza tsatanetsatane, chitokoso nchakuti kutsimikizire kuti njirayo ikhalabe yatanthauzo. Kusintha kosiyanasiyana kungathandize:

  • Ndalama yodzaza ndi njira zodzitetezera kuchepetsa kuchuluka kwa milandu ndi kutsimikizira kuti woimbidwa aliyense alandira kuimira kogwira mtima.
  • Malamulo ofukula olimbitsa [ ndi kuika zilolezo kwa kuswa lamulo.
  • CPUC kuonekera m'ziŵiya za algorithism yogwiritsiridwa ntchito m'chiweruzo cha upandu, kuphatikizapo kuvomerezedwa kwa lamulo ndi kupezeka kwa oimbidwa mlandu kuti atsutse kulondola kwawo.
  • Kufutukula kugwiritsira ntchito maprogramu otsatsa zinthu ndi makhoti ena kuchepetsa kudalira pa kumangidwa kwa milandu yaing'ono.
  • Kuthandiza anthu oteteza [1] wozunza wogwirizana ndi kugwiritsa ntchito chigamulo choyambirira cha mlandu ndi maumboni amene amalemekeza njira yoyenerera.

Pomalizira pake, bungwe la System Claus limapereka chikalata chosonyeza kuti munthu walakwa ndi kuti ali ndi ulemu komanso malamulo. Silikutsimikizira kuti munthu wolakwayo adzamukhululukira, koma limaumirira kuti liyenera kutsimikiziridwa mwa njira zimene zingalemekeze wonenezedwayo monga munthu, osati ngozi yoti aikidwe. Monga momwe dongosolo la malamulo la ku America likupitirizirabe, kudzipereka kumeneko kukukhalabe kofunika lerolino monga momwe kunalili zaka mazana ambiri malamulo asanalembedwe.

Kuŵerenga kowonjezereka pa mbiri ndi kugwiritsiridwa ntchito kwa ntchito yoyenerera, onani [[FLT: 0] Cornell Information Institute , malemba onse a Gedeon v. Wainwright pa [FLT] [FLT:] [FLT:] OYEZ , ndi [[FLT:] Marand] v. Arizona . [FLT:] Chigamu cha chigamulo. pa chiwonkhetso chachi [FLT:]