Pangano la kakhalidwe ndi limodzi la malingaliro okhalitsa kwambiri ndi osonkhezera anthanthi ya kumadzulo. Pamutu pake, limafunsa funso losavuta lonyenga: Kodi ifeyo, monga munthu payekha, timavomereza chiyani kapena kuvomereza mwachindunji pamene tipanga chitaganya ndi kugonjera ku ulamuliro wake? Mayankho operekedwa kwa zaka mazana ambiri aumba kusintha, malamulo, ndi chinenero chomwe timagwiritsa ntchito pokambirana ufulu, maudindo, ndi chilungamo. Nkhaniyi ikufufuza mizu ya mbiri yakale, matanthauzo a nzeru zamakono, ndi zikalata za mapangano amakono, ndi kupenda zimene pangano la nzikazo zimasinthasintha ndondomeko ya zaka za zana la makumi aŵiri ndi loyamba.

Chiphunzitso cha Kutengera Kakhalidwe ka Anthu

Lingaliro lakuti ulamuliro wandale zadziko unayamba ndi kuvomereza kwa olamulidwawo silinapangidwe mokwanira m'zaka za zana la 17. Olingalira akale onga Plato, m'ntchito zonga Republic , , likusonyezedwa pa pangano la maziko pakati pa nzika, koma pangano lamakono la chikhalidwe la anthu lokhala ndi mwambo wa kutseguka. Nthaŵi imeneyi inaona kusunthika kuchoka pa ufumu wa Mulungu woyenerera kukakhala ndi mfundo zina, lingaliro la munthu payekha la chibadwa ndi kuyenerera kwa ndale. Mfundo yaikulu ndi yakuti pamaso pa boma lolinganizidwa ndi zimene akatswiri a nzeru za nzeru zapamwamba amatcha kusinthira kwa chilengedwe . [anthu] analipo popanda ulamuliro wa anthu. Mkhalidwe umenewo, malinga ndi kugwirizanitsa kwa wanthanthithira, kugwirizanitsa ufulu waumoyo waukulu.

Zimphona zitatu za mwambowo . Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, ndi Jean-Jacques Rousseau . Iliyonse inapanga mtundu wapadera wa panganolo, ikumakhala ndi malingaliro osiyana kwambiri ponena za ukulu woyenera wa boma ndi ufulu wa anthu. Malingaliro awo akupitirizabe kusonkhezera mikangano ya ufulu, ulamuliro, ndi chilungamo lerolino.

Afilosofi Aakulu ndi Maso

Thomas Hobbes: Chisungiko Choposa Zonse

Polemba pakati pa chipwirikiti cha Nkhondo ya Chiŵeniŵeni ya England, Thomas Hobbes anafalitsa Leviathan [1] Mu 1651, mwachidziŵikire chitetezero cha dongosolo la ulamuliro wonse chimene chinatulutsidwa. Mkhalidwe wa chilengedwe ndi wa anthu odzifunira okha olingana, odzifunira okha, othamanga, osoŵa ulemu. Popanda mphamvu yowachititsa kukhala ndi mantha, iye analemba motchuka, moyo ndi , wosasangalatsa, wosasangalatsa, ndi wachidule. Mkhalidwe woterewu, palibe katundu, palibe chilungamo, palibenso kampani yolimbana ndi nkhondo yonse.

Kuti athawe mavutowa, anthu agwirizana kuti apereke ufulu wawo wachibadwa kwa mfumu . . Wolamulira sachita nawo panganolo. Anthu amatumiza ufulu wawo kwa mfumu, amene amalamula kuti amvere kuti apeze mtendere ndi chitetezo. Hobbes akutsutsa kuti chilichonse chimene chikuyesetsa kukana ulamuliro wa munthu wokha popanda kuopseza moyo wake. Kupandapo kuopa munthu wina kapena kutsutsana kwake kwenikweni kungasokonezenso moyo wake. Masomphenya oopsawa amakhazikitsa malamulo a boma kuposa ena onse, ndipo amalimbikitsa ngakhale ulamuliro wankhanza kukhala wofuna chisokosokonezo. Otsutsa anena kwa nthaŵi yaitali kuti Hobbs amapereka chitetezero pang’ono cha munthu aliyense, koma kuukira kwake kwenikweni kwa munthu kumakhala kuchenjeza kwamphamvu m’maulamuliro za dziko lonse ndi za chitetezo.

John Locke: Ufulu Wachilengedwe ndi Boma Lokhala ndi Malire

John Locke , , mmalo mwake, ndi ufulu wangwiro wolamulidwa ndi lamulo la chilengedwe, umene umavumbula: [[FLT:] palibe amene ayenera kuvulaza wina m’moyo wawo, thanzi, ufulu, kapena chuma. Ufulu wachibadwa umene boma linayamba kukhazikitsa, ufulu, ndi katundu, ndi vuto la chilengedwe n’lopanda chiwawa, koma n’lofala. Vuto la chilengedwe n’losiyana ndi la kuvulaza munthu wina m’moyo wawo, kapena kudwala, kapena kuchepetsako kwa anthu popanda kuweruza, kapena kuweruza kwachisalungamo, ndipo limayambitsa kulakwa kwachimwira, ndi kuweruza.

Chotero, anthu amavomereza kukhazikitsa chitaganya cha ndale zadziko ndi kukhazikitsa boma lokhala ndi maulamuliro ochepa, opatula. Ntchito yaikulu ya boma ndiyo kutetezera ufulu wachibadwidwe, makamaka chuma. Crucily, panganolo limapanga unansi wodalirana: ngati boma lilanda munthu popanda chilolezo, kulamulira mwalamulo, kapena kugwiritsira ntchito molakwa mphamvu zake. Anthu ali ndi ufulu wakuchithetsa ndi kukhazikitsa boma latsopano. Malingaliro a Locke a Chikalata cha Universensist asonkhezera kwambiri Aast; Chilengezo cha Ufulumuko chimasinthanso chinenero chake m’malo ake opandidwa ndi kuyenera kwa chipanduko. Masomphenya a Chikunja akhalabebe chita chita chita mwalamulo, chivomerezo, chigani cha lamulo, chigamulamulo cha lamulo, ndi ulamuliro wa boma.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau: Wolamulira Wachisawawa ndi Ufulu Weniweni

Jean-Jacques Rousseau The Social Contract (1762) imapereka kunyamuka kwakukulu kuchokera ku Hobbe ndi Locke. Rousseau amayamba ndi mzera wotchuka: “Munthu amabadwa waufulu, ndipo kulikonse amakhala mu unyolo. [[FLT: 3] kwa Rousseau, mkhalidwe wa chilengedwe unali mkhalidwe wamtendere, wapawokha kumene anthu anatsogozedwa ndi kudzisunga ndi chisoni. Mavuto anabuka ndi kukula kwa katundu, ulimi, ndi kukumana ndi kusalingana, kumene kunayambitsa kusalingana, mpikisano, ndi kudalirana.

Rousseau saali kubwerera ku mkhalidwe wa chilengedwe koma mtundu wa gulu limene limasunga ufulu wa chiŵalo chilichonse. Iye akulingalira pangano la anthu amakhalidwe a munthu [[FLT:] mmene munthu aliyense amapatutsa ufulu wonse ku chitaganya monga munthu, kulenga anthu onse. Chotulukapo [[FLT:] [ka] chivomerezo si] chabe chivomerezo cha munthu koma kudzipereka limodzi kwa anthu onse. Chifukwa chakuti nzika iliyonse imagawana nawo m’kulenga chifuniro cha onse, kumvera lamulolo laumwini. Rousska akunene kuti aliyense amene amakana kumvera lamulolo lachi kwa onse “adzakhala ufulu waufulu. [mawu ovuta]

Kugwirizana kwa Kakhalidwe ka Anthu m’Malingaliro Andale Zamakono

Pambuyo pa Rousseau, nthanthi ya kakhalidwe inatha kwa kanthaŵi, yosulizidwa ndi akatswiri a zachuma onga Jeremy Bentham amene anaikana kukhala nkhani yopeka. Komabe, zaka za zana la makumi aŵiri zinaona kudzutsidwanso kodabwitsa, makamaka m'ntchito ya John Rawls [. Chikalata cha John cha [FLT:]. [FLT:] [2] [Chikalata] [7] [7] [7] [7] amaukitsa anthu popanda kudziŵira malamulo a chilungamo, kapena kudalira pa kulinganiza, iye amatipempha kuti tiganizire za mkhalidwe [[FLT:] woyambirira [FLD] wofanana ndi wopindulitsa wa zachuma. Osati kwenikweni, kudalira pa mikhalidwe yachikhalidwe yachikhalidwe lamphamvu. Ngati kuti iwo asankha mikhalidwe yosanja yachindunji.

Mosiyana, Robert Nozick anatetezera pangano la bungwelo [FLT:] Akharchy, State, ndi Utopia , [1974]. Nozick akutsutsa kuti boma lililonse lokulirapo kuposa “msilikali wausiku". Boma lotetezedwa ku mphamvu, chinyengo, ndi kuba. Iye amatchula za kuyambika kwa boma kudziko la modzimodzi kudzera m'mayanjano aufulu, kutsimikizira kuti msonkho wa ntchito yofiira njofanana ndi kukakamiza. Pangano landale la Nokick nlo nlong'ka pang'onong'ono kutetezera bungwe limene limachita zinthu, koma sagwirizana ndi njira yowonjezera.

Zopereka zina zamakono zimaphatikizapo David Gauthier [FLT :1], amene amayesa kukhazikitsa makhalidwe abwino mwa njira yoyenerera kugwiritsira ntchito nthanthi ya maseŵera ndi lingaliro la “ pangano la lamulo” [ lopanda boma. [FLT] Jürgen Habermas [ amapereka chidule cha panganolo chimene chimanena kuti kuyenera kumayesedwa kuphatikiza, kukambitsirana komveka bwino. Zochitika zimenezi zikusonyeza kuti mwambo wa chikhalidwe cha anthu suli chinthu chopeka m’mafashoni koma chokhalira moyo wolingalira bwino za kuyenerera, kugwirizana, ndi chilungamo cha m'mabungwe.

Kubwereranso: Chopereka Chamoyo

M’malo mwa kukhala njira ya nthanthi yongopeka, pangano la kakhalidwe limadziŵitsa mwachindunji mavuto enieni a dziko. Nzika ndi maboma akupitirizabe kugwirizanitsa ufulu wa munthu ndi chisungiko cha onse, pakati pa zoyenera zaumwini ndi katundu wa anthu, ndi pakati pa mathayo a boma ndi mathayo a munthu aliyense payekha.

Kutetezeka, Kuchuluka kwa Anthu, ndi Kulabadira Kochititsa Chidwi

Mwinamwake bwalo la nkhondo lachigwirizano la anthu lachikhalidwe limakhala lotetezereka kwa dziko lonse. Pambuyo pa kuukira kwa September 11, maulamuliro a mademokrase ambiri ofutulidwa ofufuza, kuchepetsa mphamvu za boma, ndi ulamuliro wapamwamba. Nzika zinavomereza poyera kuloŵerera kwa boma polimbana ndi uchigaŵenga. Nkhani yodzutsa malonda a Hobbes: ufulu wochuluka motani umene timafuna kugonjera kaamba ka chitetezo? Osuliza, kugwiritsa ntchito Locke, kutsutsa kuti mphamvu zoterozo zimakhala zosatha ndipo zimachitidwa nkhanza ndi anthu otsutsana ndi anthu ochepa. Mavumbulutso a Snodere anasonyeza kuti anthu ayamba kunyalanyaza kwambiri chivomerezo chapo, kuyambitsa kusintha zinthu? Momwemo kuchititsanso kusintha kwa mphamvu zachuma, mliririri wa boma, kutsekereza, ndi malamulo a zamankhwala. Zimenezi zimatsutsa kukambirana ufulu wapadziko lonse la anthu kuti athandize kukonza ufulu wa zaumoyo?

Makompyuta ndi Makompyuta

Umisiri wapanga mitundu yatsopano ya mayanjano amene amachitidwa ndi anthu kunja kwa ndale zadziko. Mukasaina kuti mukhale pa pulogalamu ya za mayanjano a anthu, mukuvomereza mawu a-of - stervice , ngati simunawawerenge, pangano. Mapangano a foni ameneŵa amalamulira zimene munganene, mmene mumagwiritsira ntchito chidziŵitso chanu, ndi mmene mikangano imathetsedwera. Otsutsa amatsutsa kuti mapangano ameneŵa ndi othandiza, kugwiritsira ntchito bwino chidziŵitso ndi kusiya ogwiritsa ntchito mphamvu zochepa. Kukwera kwa chipani chachikulu kwachititsa pangano la zachitukuko kupempha [[FLT: 0] pangano la kakhalidwe]. lomwe lidzakhazikitsa zoyenera, kuonekera kwa kuwala, ndi kuvomereza kofala. Bungwe la European Union lotetezera za Kachipang'katswiri (GRG) likhoza kuyesanso kuvomereza pangano la munthu aliyense, ndi kuvomereza mfundo zachikatikati, kuti pa Intaneti pambali pambali pa , mfundo yake, kutithandiza kuvomereza ndi kuvomereza ndi kuwonjezera chaku

Kusintha kwa Nyengo ndi Chilungamo cha M’chilengedwe

Kusintha kwa nyengo kumadzutsa mafunso aakulu ponena za mgwirizano wa anthu m'mibadwo yonse. Zosankha zamakono zokhudza kutulutsa, kugwiritsa ntchito makampani, ndi zamaziko zimakhudza anthu amene alibe mawu m'dongosolo la ndale zamakono. Kodi pangano la chikhalidwe chingaphatikizepo zosabadwa? Afilosofi onga John Rawls [[FLT] ndi [[FLT:] [[FLT] [2] [] [D] Diective Parfit [] ['] [mapangano a zachikhalidwe] alimbana ndi chilungamo chapakati pa , koma andale saonadi za m'mbuyo . Mapangano olimbitsa thupi angafune kuti angopekapo kaamba ka phindu la ana amene sangathe kuthandizirana. Kutsutsa chiphunzitso chachikhalidwe pakati pa anthu ena. Akatswiri ena akupereka chikalata chokhudza chikhalidwe cha anthu. [Flmaketne]

Kugwirizana kwa Makhalidwe m’Zikhalidwe Zosiyana

Ngakhale kuti mwambo wa pangano la kakhalidwe ka anthu kaŵirikaŵiri umanenedwa kukhala wopangidwa ndi Azungu, miyambo yambiri yakulitsa malingaliro otsutsa ozikidwa m’mbiri yawo ndi malingaliro a dziko.

Mmene Anthu Amaganizira

Anthu ambiri a m'dzikolo ku North America, Australia, ndi kwina kulikonse omwe anali ndi madongosolo a kulamulira ozikidwa pa mapangano, mapangano, ndi mayanjano aubwenzi pakati pa anthu, dziko, ndi dziko la mizimu. Haudenosaee (Iroquoise) Confederacy [Iroquois)], mwachitsanzo, amazikidwa pa Chilamulo Chachikulu cha Mtendere, pangano la malamulo pakati pa mitundu isanu ndi isanu (pambuyo pa 6) imene inakhazikitsa bungwe la boma, chigawo, ndi kupanga chigamulo. Dongoli layamba ndi limatchedwa kaŵirikaŵiri kukhala chisonkhezero pa U. S. Mapangano a anthu pano si a anthu, mafuko, ndi adziko lachilengedwe.

Mafilosofi a Kummaŵa

Confucius, imene yaumba zitaganya za Kum’maŵa kwa zaka zoposa 2,000, imagogomezera kugwirizana, udindo, ndi kubwezera ntchito m'malo mwa ufulu wa munthu. M’masomphenya a Confucius, wolamulira ali ndi thayo lamakhalidwe abwino kusamalira anthu, ndipo anthu ayenera kukhala okhulupirika ndi omvera , koma ngati wolamulirayo alamulira mowoloŵa manja. [[FLD:] [[FLT]] [0] Madeti a Kumwamba [[FLD] [1] [1] m'malingaliro a chikhalidwe cha anthu: amfumu yakhala ndi mphamvu malinga ngati ikulamulira bwino; masoka ndi kupanduka ndi zizindikiro zosonyeza kuti lamulo la Mulungu lakhala lopatulidwa. Ngakhale kuti pali zigamu za anthu onse omwe sagwirizana. Ngakhale kuti pali kugwirizana pakati pa anthu.

Akutiphunzitsa za Chikhalidwe cha Anthu

Ngakhale kuti mwambo wa anthu umakhala ndi mphamvu zokhalitsa, anthu ayamba kuugwiritsa ntchito m’njira zosiyanasiyana.

Chisonkhezero cha Kudziŵa Kusunga Akazi

Ochirikiza zachimuna, kwambiri [[FLT: 0] Carole Patman mu Sexual Contract [1988], imatsutsa kuti pangano lachikhalidwe cha anthu nlachikulu. Akazi “am'kayayayayaya" ku Hobbas, Locle, ndi Rousss ndi mutu wa mwamuna wa banja. Mapangano pakati pa anthu kupanga chitaganya panthaŵi imodzi [ [1988] pangano la kugonana kwa makolo [[FLT:] [ma] [malamulo:5] amene amagonjera amuna m'malo a anthu wamba. Akazi amachotsedwapo ku mgwirizano ndi kudziko loyambirira ndi lovomerezeka, kumene ali osagwirizana ndi kudziko, ndipo alibe ulamuliro wa amuna. Malamulo a anthu ambiri ogwirizana ndi ogwirizana ndi kukhazikitsa ufulu wa anthu.

Atsamunda a Pambuyo pa Kulamulira ndi Atsamunda Aufuko

Akatswiri a zautundu (1997), akutsutsa kuti pangano la anthu siliri lapadziko lonse koma kuti [[FLT :1]. Mamilm amatsutsa kuti pangano la chikhalidwe cha anthu a ku Ulaya linali pangano lakale pakati pa azungu kuti akhazikitse mfundo za fuko limene silinakhaleko. Mapanganowo sakutanthauza kuti anthu ena monga anthu wamba, ndipo enawo ali ndi ufulu wokwanira. Zimenezi n’zoonekera m'zolemba za anthu a ku mayiko a ku Ulaya, amene analemba ndi kulandana ndi kulandana ndi anthu audani. Zipanganozo sizikuimiranso anthu ena monga anthu wamba. Zipanganozo sizikuchitikanso kuti anthu ena azikhala ndi ufulu wa anthu. Zipangano zimenezi n’zomwe zimaonekera m’kachitika m’malonda, omwe amalemba malonda ndi kulandana mipunziko yoyenerera kukopa anthu. Zikalata zomveka kuti zigwirizane ndi zisagwirizana zachikhalidwe cha anthu ambiri, monga momwe zikanakhalira, zifukwanizo, zimadalira pa mitundu ya anthu, zifukufukufukufukufukufukufukufukufukufu

M’bungwe la Marx ndi Atsogoleri Achipembedzo

Kuchokera kumanzere, Marx ndi otsutsa boma amatsutsa pangano la kakhalidwe monga chophimba cha malingaliro a anthu olamulira. Karl Marx . Karl Marx adatsutsa kuti boma silili lauchete koma chida cha gulu lolamulira. Ilo lomwe limadziwika kuti limapereka lamulo la zinthu zaumwini zimene zimapondereza antchito. Limakana ufulu waukulu wa anthu. Aarchive si Prierre- Joshey [Fluthon ndi [FLT] . Mikilkhain . [FFFLT:5] Akhoza kukana boma lonse, kuona mapangano onse amene amapanga ulamuliro wopondereza. Iwo amachirikiza mayanjano aufulu, popanda kutsogolera boma laufulu, ndi kuchirikiza boma lopanda chigaweru, ngakhale kutsutsa chivomezi.

Vuto la Kuvomereza ndi Nthano Zakale

Chitsutso china chopitirizabe nchakuti pangano la mayanjano ndilo nthanthi ya m'mbiri. Palibe munthu weniweni amene adasainapo pangano lokhazikitsa chitaganya. Hobbe, Locke, ndi Rousseau adadziŵa zimenezi; adapereka panganolo monga kuyerekezera kapena kukonzanso kwanzeru, osati chochitika cha m'mbiri. Osuliza onga David Hume adatsutsa kuti pafupifupi maboma onse omwe alipo anayamba kugonjetsa kapena kulanda, osavomereza, ndi kuti kukopa pangano losapereka thayo lenileni. Afilosofi achitapo kanthu mwa kusiyanitsa pakati pa chivomerezo chomveka (oaths, chivoti) ndi [FLT. Ogwirizana ndi magulu ake ovomerezedwa ndi kutsutsa.

Kumaliza: Chigwirizano Chosintha

Pangano la mayanjano silinasainidwe kamodzi ndipo kwa onse. Ndilo lingaliro lamoyo, lotsutsidwa kuti mbadwo uliwonse uyenera kumasulira ndi kubwezeretsa. Nthanthi zoyambirira za Hobbes, Locke, ndi Rousseau zikupitiriza kupereka malingaliro ofunika kwambiri otsutsana za ulamuliro, zoyenera, ndi zabwino. Akatswiri amakono onga ngati Rawlls ndi Nozick asintha ndi kutsutsa maluwawo. Panthaŵiyi, Postccollation, ndi critiques amatisonkhezera kufutulira anthu amene amaonedwa kukhala ogwirizana ndi panganolo, kuphatikizapo akazi, anthu a mtundu, mibadwo yamtsogolo, ndi dziko lachilengedwe.

Kodi timagwirizana ndi chiyani tikafuna kukhazikitsa dziko? Yankho limadalira pa amene akufunsa, amene akufunsidwa m’macheza, ndiponso mavuto amene timakumana nawo. M’nyengo ya ngozi za m’nyengo yadzidzidzi, kuyang’anira za magetsi, ndi kukonzanso mapulogalamu otchuka, pangano la kakhalidwe n’lofunika kwambiri kuposa kale. Kupempha aliyense wa ife kuganizira za moyo wake woganizira ena. Ufulu umene timausunga, chitetezo chimene timafuna, kulolera, ndi udindo umene tili nawo kwa alendo, anansi, ndi ana athu. Kugwirizana ndi pangano la kakhalidwe kakhalidwe ka anthu siko kokha kumangofuna kuphunzira zinthu.