Choloŵa Chokhalitsa cha Chitetezo Chofanana ndi cha Claus

Chigawo 1 cha Chikalata cha Expand Protection ku United States, chikuimira limodzi la malamulo amphamvu kwambiri ndi otsutsana ndi lamulo lachikhalidwe ku America. Chimalamula kuti palibe boma limene “lidzapereka chitetezo chofanana cha malamulo. Chilamulo chimenechi chosavuta koma chachikulu chakhala maziko alamulo a dzikolo kuti likhale lokwaniritsa lonjezo lakulingana. Kuchokera kutsutsa Jim Crow kusungitsa kulingana kwa ukwati, chikalatacho chakhala chiŵiya chachikulu cha kutsendekera boma lotsutsa. Kumvetsa chiyambi chake, chisinthiko cha chiphunzitso, ndi zikalata zamakono nzofunika kwa aliyense wofuna kumvetsetsa ufulu wa dziko la America.

Maziko a Mbiri Yakale: Kukonzanso ndi Kuyambika kwa Lonjezo

Chikalata cha Expand Protection Claus chinabadwa kuchokera ku phulusa la Nkhondo ya Chiŵeniŵeni. Mu 1868, Lamulo la 14 la Kukonzanso Malamulo linali mbali ya Malamulo a 14 omwe analinganizidwa kugwirizanitsa anthu akale ogwidwa ukapolo ku mtundu wa America. Mawuwo anali kuyankha mwachindunji ku Malamulo a Black Code . Malamulo operekedwa ndi mayiko a ku Southern kuti amaletsa kwambiri ufulu wa anthu a ku Africa, kuwakakamiza kuloŵa m’mapangano a ntchito, kuchepetsa ufulu wawo wa katundu, ndi kukana kuwakhazikitsa kumakhoti. Malamulo ameneŵa anatsimikizira kuti kuchotsa ukapolo (kupyo mwa kupem'ka 1 76 Amereka) kunali kosakwanira. Lamulo lina linafunikira kutsimikizira kuti anthu onse, mosasamala kanthu za fuko, akalandira kuyang’anizana kwalamulo monga nzika zachikhalidwe.

Pa nthawi ya chigwirizano cha nyengo, Congress inakhazikitsanso zoyenera za anthu kuti asungitse zitsimikizo zatsopano za malamulo, koma Khoti Lapamwamba linamasulira mawuwo poyamba. Cases-Nyumba (11873], khotilo linachepetsa kufikiridwa kwa ufulu wa Opaleshoni ya 145 kapena Immunonity Clause, kukakamiza ochirikiza kulingana kudalira kwakukulu pa Chitetezo cha ezake ndi Makonzedwe a Classias. Mlawudi wach inakhazikitsa gawo la ulendo wautali ndi wosayenerera wa kumasulira [1] ulendo umene udzaona lamulo la Opatulidwa onse aŵiriwo likuperekedwa ndi kuwomboletsedwa.

Kusakhulupirika kwa ['FLT: 0] Plessy v. Ferguson

Kwa zaka makumi ambiri pambuyo pa kukonzansonso, Sucreate Protection Claus inasiya kuletsa. [FLT] Pnety v. Ferguson (1996] , Khoti Lalikulu linachirikiza lamulo la Louisiana lofuna kuti aufuko azikhala ndi anthu a fuko limodzi, kukhazikitsa magalimoto a sitima otchuka “osalingana ndi . Khotilo linalingalira kuti linalibe kutsika ngati zinthu zofanana. Zomwe, kuzoloŵera, nyumba zoperekedwa kwa anthu a ku Africa nthaŵi zambiri zinali zotsika nthaŵi zonse. Chigamuchi chigamulochi chotetezero cha Claus kwa zaka pafupifupi 60, chopereka chomangira kaamba ka kaundalawu wa mafuko a mafuko: Jimrow.

Plessy imangokhala chikumbutso champhamvu chakuti lemba la malamulo lokha silingatsimikizire kufanana. Nkhani zachiweruzo kwambiri. Chiganizocho sichinali kudziphetsa; chinafuna oweruza ofunitsitsa kuchipereka mopindulitsa. Kufunitsitsa kumeneko sikukanatuluka kufikira chapakati pa zaka za zana la zana la zana la 20etie, pamene ndawala yogwirizana ya lamulo (yochitidwa ndi NAACP Legal Defense Fund [1]

Milandu Yapansi Yosiyana ndi Yamilandu

Nkhani yamakono ya Aumeal Protection Claus imafotokozedwa bwino kwambiri kupyolera m'miyala yachizindikiro imene yalongosola njira zake. Zosankha zimenezi zinasintha mawu kuchokera ku chilembo cha imfa kukhala chiŵiya champhamvu chakutsutsa tsankho.

Brown v. Board of Education (1954)

Mwinamwake chigamulo cha Bwalo Lapamwamba koposa m'mbiri ya Amereka, [FLT .B. Board of Education adalengeza kuti kugaŵana kwa mafuko m'masukulu kwa onse kunali kosagwirizana. Chigamulo chachikulu Earl Warren analemba kuti “malo a maphunziro ali osalingana mwachibadwa,” kukana [[FLT:] P [FLT] [FLT:] maziko a . Khotilo linapeza kuti kuchepetsa kutsika kwa ana a ku Africa kuno amene sakakhoza kubwezeredwa ndi chuma chokwanira. [FLD:] Brown [FFLD] adalephera kutulutsansonso. [FLT]

Kukula kwa Kusanthula

Pambuyo pa Brown [[FLT :1], Bwalo lamilandu linapanga mulongo wolinganizika wopendera mawu otetezera ofanana. Makonzedwe ameneŵa amasankha kuti khoti lidzapenda mosamalitsa motani lamulo lotopedwa lozikidwa pa kusanthula kwake (m., fuko, chisembwere, mkhalidwe wa kugonana).

  • Scrutiny : Igwiritsiridwa ntchito kusiyanitsa kozikidwa pa fuko, mtundu, ndi kusamukira. Lamulo liyenera kukhala “lokonzedwa bwino kwambiri” kutumikira“ chikondwerero cha boma. Umenewu ndi muyezo wovuta kwambiri; malamulo ochepa kwambiri amapulumuka.
  • [[FLT: 0] Msanganizo umenewu unatchulidwa choyamba mu . [FLT] Cincuit . Boren . [FLT] [[FLT]] [6] [6], zimene zinagwetsa lamulo la Oklahoma. [malamulo]
  • Rasal Basis Review: Muyezo wotsatizana wa mitundu ina yambiri (m’mzera, msinkhu, chuma, kupunduka). Lamulo lifunikira kokha “kugwirizana ndi "chikondwerero chogwirizana ndi boma.” Imeneyi ndi yofunika kwambiri ku malamulo.

Milandu Ina Yaikulu: Kugonana, Ukwati, ndi Ufulu

. [[FLT:] [[FLT] [197]] kaŵirikaŵiri amakambitsirana monga mlandu wachinsinsi, koma ambiri akuganiza mu [[FLT:]] Roe [ [malingaliro olingana] [malingaliro] [akazi]] [amene analongosolanso zinthu zotetezera zofanana kwa akazi. [[FLT]] [[FLT]] [[FLT]] [7]] [7] [7] [malingaliro a] "Mlandulo a] [[FLT] [[FLT:] [1] [i] [imodzi], Khotilo limatsimikizira kuti ufulu wa ogwirizana ndi ogwirizana. [ziyenetsendedwa ndi kutetezera kwa] Malamulo amodzi. [F]

Nkhani ina yofunika ndiyo . Khoti linagwiritsira ntchito kufufuza kwapakati ndipo linafuna boma kupereka “kulungamitsa kochititsa chidwi . . Kulephera kwa khoti kuchititsa kulowa kwa akazi. Nkhaniyi ikusonyeza kuti ngakhale kusanthula kwapakati kukhoza kukhala kwamphamvu kwambiri popereka “kulungamitsa kochititsa chidwi kwa "kusintha kwa amuna." chifukwa cha kulephera kwa kuvomereza akazi.

Kudzitetezera Kofanana ndi Ena

Kukula kofunikira kwa chiphunzitso ndiko kuphatikizidwa kwa Kutetezera Claus kwa boma la boma. Chiganizocho icho chokha chimagwira ntchito molunjika ku maboma. Komabe, Khoti Lapamwamba lagamula kuti Findft Demendment’s Proces Claus ili ndi chitetezero chofanana ndi chimodzi [1] Kuphatikizana. [FLT:] [1] Bolting v. [1954] [54], ilonzekeretu tsiku limodzi ndi [[FLT:] Brown , khoti inakantha thi m'chigawo cha Count cha Country kugwiritsa ntchito mfundo imeneyi.

Kulimbana ndi Malo Ozungulira Amakono

Buku lakuti Acial Protection Claus likupitirizabe kuyambitsa mkangano waukulu pamene anthu akulimbana ndi mitundu yatsopano ya tsankho ndi kusiyana kwa anthu.

Ntchito Yotsimikizira

Zigawo zoŵerengeka za lamulo lotetezera n’zosiyana ndi kuvomereza ntchito . Maboma amene amalingalira fuko kukhala chochititsa kulowa kwa yunivesite kapena boma kuyesa kuthetsa tsankho lapapitapo. [[FLT: 0] [FLT]] [[FLT]]] [1] Regetts za yunivesite ya California v. Bakke[[[FLT:]]] [2] [magawo] [mafuko] [magawo] [magawo], Khoti limakhulupirira kuti mafuko ndi osakhala a mafuko, koma kuti mtundu ungaonedwe monga chinthu chimodzi. Zotsatirapo, pambuyo pake [FFFLT:] [FFFFFFF:5]. [FFFF].FFUM. [10].

Kusintha Ufulu ndi Kumenyana kwa Fuko

Chikalatacho chakhalanso chopinga kutsutsa malamulo a kusanthula. Khoti Lapamwamba lagwiritsira ntchito chitetezo chofanana kupha galleraders ya fuko, kumene mizera ya chigawo imakokedwa kuchepetsa mphamvu ya kuvota yoŵerengeka (pamilandu yonga ] [[FLT]]]] Shot v. [1993]] [[FLT]] [[FLT] [magetagives Blave Classive v.[FFFFF:]]] kuwonjezera chitetezero chaposachedwapa, chikufuna kuvoma kapena kutsutsa kutetezera kwachiŵirinso kumbuyoku

LGBTQ+ Ufulu Woposa Ukwati

Pamene kuli kwakuti Ofese "Ofese] adalandira kulingana kwa ukwati, mitundu ina ya tsankho pa LGBTQ+ anthu omwe atsala. Macatempop v. Colorado Commission Commission ya Chikomyunizimu (2088]] ], Khoti linalamulira moyanjana ndi wophika mkate wa ukwati amene anakana kupanga keke ya banja lachiŵalo limodzi, koma chigamulo cha bungwelo chinasintha pa kudana kwa zikhulupiriro za chipembedzo cha wophika mkateyo mmalo mwa kusiyanitsa. Khotilo linasankhabe kaya mkhalidwe wa kugonana ndi kuyang'anizana ndi kuyang'anizana ndi chikole chogaŵanitsidwa. Nkhani ya Loweruka, nkhani ya lamulo la lamulo la lamulo la Unikston lidakalipo.

Chilungamo Chaupandu ndi Kusalingana kwa Chuma

Zigomeko zolingana za chitetezo zikukula kwambiri m'nkhani ya kusintha kwa chilungamo cha apandu. Kuchokera ku kubwezera kwa ufuko kufikira ku chilango chosatsutsika, osuliza amanena kuti dongosololi limachita ndi osauka ndi oimbidwa mlandu ochepa mosalingana. Komabe, Khoti Lalikulu, lakhala loopa kugwiritsa ntchito kupenda kowonjezereka kwa magawo a chuma, kusiya mawu ambiri osalingana ndi a zachuma kuti atsimikizire. Kugonjera kumeneku kwatsalira ochirikiza, koma mawuwo akupitirizabe kugwiritsidwa ntchito m’matokosokoso kulipira ndalama, failo, ndi ndalama zimene zimayambukira osauka.

Makina Otetezera Anthu Ofanana

Kuti timvetse mmene makhoti amaonera chitetezo chofanana, ndi bwino kuti tiyende m’gulu lotsutsa lamulo choyamba kusonyeza kuti lamulolo limaika anthu m’magulu osiyanasiyana mwa njira inayake.

Ngati gulu lapaderali likuyang'aniridwa ndi “gulu la zigawo za sulucts” (mtundu, dziko) kapena kulemera ndi“ kumanja kwapamwamba kwa" (kuyendera, kuyenda kwa mayiko, kukhala kwachinsinsi), kugwiritsa ntchito pulogalamu yosatsutsika. Ngati magawowo aikapo gulu la “quasi-suspect". (gener, pregitacy), kufufuza kwapakati kumagwira ntchito. Magawo onse amalandira maziko oyenera.

Ena amanena kuti kuweruzako kumapatsa oweruza nzeru kwambiri kuti asankhepo kuti ndi magulu ati amene afunikira kutetezedwa. Kumene kulibe tsankho lokhudzana ndi mabwalo a malo, monga akazi akuda. Ngakhale kuti pali mitu ya anthu ofufuza imeneyi, milongo ya mipambo ya kupenda imakhalabe yolamulira m’lamulo lotetezera lolingana.

Malingaliro a Padziko Lonse pa Chitetezo Chofanana

Ngakhale kuti bungwe la United States la United States lotchedwa Foundation Protection Claus ndi la ku America, malamulo ake amakhalidwe abwino akukhudza dziko lonse. Malamulo ambiri amakono akuphatikizapo kutsimikizira kofanana kwa kulingana pamaso pa lamulo. Mwachitsanzo, Gawo 15 la Tchata cha Canadian cha ufulu wa ufulu ndi Freedom limatsimikizira ufulu wolingana, ndipo Bukhu la Malamulo la ku South Africa la ufulu la Limodzi la Malamulo la Limodzi la Malamulo la Limodzi la Malamulo a Ufulu la Kuyenera kuphatikizapo mawu olingana amene amaletsa tsankho pa zifukwa zambiri, kuphatikizapo fuko, kugonana, mimba, malo a ukwati, fuko, mtundu, mtundu, kakhalidwe, kupunduka, chipembedzo, chikhulupiriro, mwambo, chinenero, ndi kubadwa. Nthaŵi zambiri malamulo ameneŵa amasonkhezera kutengera ku Amerika, koma ali ndi zochitika zawo zapadera.

Makhoti apadziko lonse, monga ngati European Court of Human Rights, amalimbananso ndi nkhani zotetezera zofanana pansi pa Mfundo 14 ya European Convention on Human Rights (Chipangano cha Malamulo Osiyanitsa Ufulu wa Anthu). Malamulo ogwirizana ndi malamulo a malamulo akupereka chidziŵitso chochuluka ponena za mmene malamulo osiyanasiyana amalinganizirira kulingana ndi makhalidwe ena, monga ngati ufulu wa chipembedzo kapena ufulu wa boma.

Zitokoso ndi Kusuliza

Mosasamala kanthu za mbali yake yaikulu, Kutetezera kwa Ault Claus sikuli kopanda malire. Chiyeneretso chimodzi chopitirizabe ndicho chiyeneretso chake chalamulo : mawuwo amagwira ntchito ku khalidwe la boma, osati kutsatiridwa mwachinsinsi. Zimenezi zikutanthauza kuti popanda njira yothetsera vuto, anthu sangakhale ndi lamulo loletsa bwana, mwini nyumba, kapena bizinesi imene imasiyanitsa. Khoti lazindikira kupatulapo pamene oseŵera achinsinsi ali ovomerezedwa ndi boma kwakuti zochita zawo zimakhala zochita za boma, koma kulephera kumeneku kuli ndi malire.

Kusuliza kwina ndiko mawu a mawu a stative a proves . Oweruza ena oyambirira amatsutsa kuti opanga mameseji a 149th Amendment aletsa kokha tsankho la fuko, osati tsankho lozikidwa pa kugonana, kutengeka, kapena zifukwa zina. Lingaliro limeneli lingachepetse kwambiri kufika kwa mawu a Chingelezi. Komabe, akatswiri ambiri a zamalamulo ndi oweruza amayanja “Malamulo amoyo”, akumatsutsa kuti chinenero chofala cha chitetezo chimalola kukwaniritsa matanthauzo atsopano a kupanda chilungamo.

Pomalizira, chiganizocho chasulizidwa chifukwa cha kulephera kwake kwa nthaŵi zonse. Ngakhale khoti likapeza kuswa kofanana, kupanga mankhwala ogwira ntchito n’kovuta. Mwachitsanzo, pambuyo pa , Barrown , develoption inapitirizabe pang'onopang'onopang'onopang'onopang'ono ndipo kaŵirikaŵiri inayang'anizana ndi chitsutso chachikulu. Posachedwapa, makhoti akhala akulimbana kuthetsa kusokonezeka kwa mafuko m'mabungwe ndi chilungamo chofanana ndi kuteteza, chimene chimayang'ana cha kumbuyo ndi mlandu.

Kumaliza: Ntchito Yosaletsedwa ya Kulingana

Kuteteza Claus kukukhalabe ngati chikopa ndi lupanga pofunafuna chilungamo. Chinenero chake n’chosavuta, koma chimakhudza zinthu zambiri. Kuyambira pa Malamulo Olabura a Common mpaka kuvomereza kwa masiku ano, mawuwa ndi amene ali maziko a nkhondo zamphamvu kwambiri za makhalidwe a America ndi malamulo. Akhala akugwiritsidwa ntchito kuchotsa malo oyenera, kuonetsetsa kuti amuna ndi akazi ali paokha, ndipo amateteza ulemu wa LGBTQ+. Komabe ntchitoyi siinathe.

Mphamvu ya chiganizocho siiri m’mayankhidwe okhazikika koma m'kukhoza kwake kwa kukula kwa makhalidwe. Monga momwe Justice Thur Good Marshall adalembera, “Bungwe la Malamulo silimaletsa kugwiritsira ntchito masankho a ufuko; limaletsa kugwiritsira ntchito masankho a ufuko kaamba ka chifuno cha kusungitsa kulingana kwa mafuko. Kusiyanitsa kumeneko kumakhala pakati pa kulingana kwa kulingana kwa mwambo wa mlingo wa chitaganya ndi kulingana monga chilungamo chachisungiko chachitetezero chofanana. Nzika, ochirikiza, ndi oweruza ayenera kukhalabe maso kutsimikizira kuti lamulo lamwambo likhalebe kwa anthu onse m’dziko la United States.

Kaamba ka kuŵerenga kowonjezereka, fufuzani Cornell Information Institute ya kupenda kofanana kwa chitetezo , Project ya mlandu wa Khoti Lalikulu [[FLT:], ndi [FLT] Cetation Anetic of thentificted of the Genetic