Chiyambi: Kulinganiza Mphamvu mwa Lamulo

Chiphunzitso cha ufulu wa boma ndicho chiphunzitso chalamulo chimene chimanena kuti chitetezero cha kusutidwa m'khoti la boma popanda chilolezo chawo. Mfundo imeneyi, yozikidwa kwambiri m'kakonzedwe ka boma la America, imagwira ntchito monga kuyang'anira kofunikira pa ulamuliro wa boma ndi kuteteza chuma cha boma ku milandu yaumwini. Chiphunzitsochi chimatsimikizira kuti boma lisunga ufulu wa kudzilamulira m'dongosolo la boma, kuletsa boma kugwiritsira ntchito ziŵiya zachinsinsi monga zipangizo zosokoneza boma kapena ndalama. Panthaŵi imodzimodziyo, bungwe la U.S. Limodzi la malamulo a boma lili ndi ulamuliro wa a Brogate, kapena kunyalanyaza, kuletsa zimenezi m'nkhani yapadera , mphamvu imene yachititsa zaka makumi ambiri ya kukambirana ndi maphunziro. Kuzindikira mmene boma lingasinthire mkhalidwe wa ufulu wa dziko lolamulira ufulu wa dziko ndi ulamuliro nkofunika kwambiri.

Chiyambi cha Mbiri cha Kugwirizana kwa Boma Lolamulira

Maziko a Malamulo Achingelezi Ofala

Lingaliro la kudzitetezera kwa munthu mwini silinabwerere ku lamulo la Chingelezi, kumene monarch , ameneyo , sakanazengedwa mlandu m'mabwalo ake popanda chilolezo chake. Mfunso "mfumu singachite cholakwa" inasonyeza lingaliro lakuti koronayo sanali wotetezeka ku njira yalamulo. Chitetezero chimenechi sichinali mwaŵi waumwini koma unali mkhalidwe wofunika kwambiri wa ulamuliro weniweni. Pamene maiko a ku America anapatuka ku England, iwo anatengera mwambo walamulo umenewu, koma ndi kusintha kwa dziko la dziko: mfumuyo sinalinso mfumu koma anthu iwo eniwo, kudzera mwa maboma a boma.

Kulera Ana Oyambirira a ku America ndi Mkangano wa Chisolimu

M'lipabuliki yoyambirira, chiphunzitso cha kutetezera ulamuliro wa boma sichinatheretu. Malamulo sananene mwachindunji za kukhoza kusungirira boma m’khoti la boma. Zimenezi zinatsogolera mwachindunji ku mlandu wofunika kwambiri wa Bwalo Lamilandu la Supreme: Chahisolm v. Georgia[FL:1] [[1793] [Chjolm], khoti, m'chigamulo cha 4 , chinakhulupirira kuti District III ya lamulo la South Caroline inalola nzika ya boma la Georgia kubwezeretsa ngongole ndi boma la Reunionism. Chivomezi cha Jewischi ndi chigamu chinatsutsa chigamu cha Jeunion Wilsonne ndi chigamu china cha ufulu wa boma latsopano, ndipo sichinatsati mfundo ya boma latsopano.

Chigamulocho chinayambitsa mliri wamwamsanga. Maboma anaopa kuti adzazengedwa milandu chifukwa cha ngongole zimene sanabwezerepo ndi udindo wa nthaŵi ya nkhondo. Poyankha mwachindunji, Congress inafuna ndipo maboma anavomereza kukhazikitsa Demendment ya khumi ndi limodzi mu 1795, imene inagwetsa Chachichlolm [1] mwa kupereka:

Mphamvu ya Chiweruzo ya United States sidzalingaliridwa kukhala yosonyeza chivomerezo chirichonse m’lamulo kapena m’kukondera, choyambitsidwa kapena kuimbidwa mlandu pa umodzi wa United States ndi nzika za Boma lina, kapena choperekedwa ndi nzika kapena nzika za Boma la Dziko Lachilendo lirilonse.

Kukonza kumeneku kunakhala maziko a malemba kaamba ka chitetezo cha boma cha ulamuliro m’dongosolo la boma, ngakhale kuti kufikira kwake kolongosoka kukaikidwa kwa zaka mazana ambiri.

Malamulo: M’kakonzedwe ka Khumi ndi Asanu ndi Aŵiri ndi Kuposapo

Lemba ndi Kumasulira Koyambirira

Demendment ya 11th Amendment, ndi chinenero chake chopanda pake, imayendera kokha makhoti pa dziko lotsutsana ndi nzika za boma lina kapena nzika zachilendo. Siimaletsa masuti kwa nzika za boma kapena boma lenilenilo. Komabe, Khoti Lapamwamba linafutukula chiphunzitsocho mwamsanga kuposa malemba enieni. [[FLT: 0] Hans v. Louisiana [1890], Khotilo linakhulupirira kuti nzika ya Louisiana siingasunge boma lake la boma la boma pansi pa khoti la Contract Claus. Khoti linagamula kuti Amelimite sanali gwero la wolamulira yekha; m’malo mwake, linatsimikizira lamulo lokhala ngati silinavomerezedwe, lopanda lamulo.

Hans anakhazikitsa malamulo otetezera opangika amene amagwira ntchito kwa sutu onse molimbana ndi boma m’khoti la boma, mosasamala kanthu za unziko wa mtsogoleri wa boma. Kuchinjiriza kumeneku kumafutukukira osati kokha kusuti kaamba ka zowonongedwa za ndalama komanso ku mitundu ina ya kuchepetsa. Komabe, Khotilo linalembanso kusiyana kofunika: suti ndi maboma ena, suti ndi boma la boma, ndi suti ya m’chipukutira cha apolisi kuletsa apolisi pansi pa mbali ina yachigamu yachigamulo cha boma kuletsa kuletsa apolisiwonetsetsa oweruzawo. Pamene kuli kopitirizabe, lamulo loletsa kuletsa ufulu.

Ntchito Yamakono: Kugaŵikana kwa Boma Monga Lamulo la Malamulo

Lerolino, Khoti Lapamwamba limaona chitetezero cha boma kukhala mbali yaikulu ya kapangidwe ka malamulo, osati kokha lamulo lalamulo kapena la lamulo lofala. Seminole Frigity of Florida v. Florida (1996), Khoti linaona kuti Courts siingaletsetsetsetsendere boma mphamvu ya ulamuliro wa ulamuliro pa mfundo zake (monga ngati Interstate Compast Classione). Maulamuliro okha amene anapatsidwa chigawo 5 cha Jeneth Amendement Demendment . Chimene chimalola Nyumba za Malamulo kusungitsa zitsimikizo za njira yoyenera ndi chitetezo chofanana. Chigamulo chimenechi chigamulo chodabwitsa cha malamulo (mo lokhala ndi malamulo a boma lachinsinsi (momwe limachititsa kuweruza mlandu pa malamulo a boma la boma la boma la boma lolamulira, ikumapitirizabe kutsutsana ndi kutsutsana ndi kutsutsana ndi kutsutsana kwa lamulo.

Mphamvu ya Congress kwa Mfumu ya Boma la Abrogate

Mpumulo Wachinayi Wotchedwa Decline monga Chombo Chachikulu

Pansi pa Konsichushoni, Congress ili ndi ulamuliro wochepa wochotsera ufulu wa boma. Makonzedwe aakulu ndi Chigawo 5 cha Geneth Amendment, chimene chimapereka: "Congress idzakhala ndi mphamvu zotsatirira, mwa malamulo oyenerera, makonzedwe a nkhani ino. Khoti Lapamwamba lakhala ndi chikhulupiriro chakuti mphamvu imeneyi imatheketsa Nyumba za boma kuteteza dziko pamene lichitapo kanthu kuletsa kapena kutsendereza zitsimikizo za pansi pa 1449 Demendment, chitetezo chofanana, ndi mwaŵi kapena kuteteza unziri wa dziko.

Kuti likhale lokwanira, Congress ayenera kukwaniritsa zofunika ziŵiri. Choyamba, ayenera kufotokoza motsimikiza cholinga chake cha kuteteza boma pa kudziimira paokha m'malemba a statory. Makonzedwe ankhondo a state omwe satchula kulira sikokwanira. Chachiŵiri, kukwatulidwa kuyenera kukhala "kugwirizana ndi kulingana" kuyankha ku mkhalidwe wosayenerera. Ngati msonkhanowo ukuchitidwa ndi kulephera kwa boma. Kuyesa kumeneku, kokhazikitsidwa mu Mudzi wa Boerne v. Flores . [1997], kumafuna kuti lamulolo likhale lokonzedwa kuti liteteze kapena kuswa lamulo lachindunji. Ngati msonkhanowo umachita zinthu zambiri zimene sizikukhudza khalidwe limene silikukhudzana.

Mafano Aakulu Amene Boma Logaŵikana la Brobote Limawononga

Nyumba ya malamulo yapambana pa kuletsa boma kuletsa kulanda dziko pogwiritsira ntchito mphamvu yake ya Chigawo 5 m’malamulo angapo osonyeza zinthu zofunika kwambiri monga:

  • [[FLT: 0] Chikalata cha Chisungiko cha ufulu wa anthu cha 1964 (Tit VII): Kusankha ntchito kochitidwa ndi olemba ntchito aumwini ndi a boma, kuphatikizapo maboma. Khoti Lapamwamba, mu Fatztick v. Bitzer [1977], inachirikiza ulamuliro wa Congress ku boma lotetezera dziko pansi pa Divit VII chifukwa chakuti lamulolo linalinganizidwa kusungitsa chitetezo cha Claus. United States tsopano angaperekedwe kaamba ka tsankho pansi pa Dipotive VII.
  • [[FLT: 0] A ku America Okhala ndi Chiletso (ADA) : Mutu I (ntchito) ndi Umutwe II (mautumiki a anthu onse) akuphatikizapo makonzedwe a kuulutsa. Board of Trustees of University of Alabama v. Garrett[FLD:] (2001] [2001], Khoti linagonjetsa kusankhidwa pantchito (I mutu) chifukwa chakuti bungwe silinasonyeze chisonyezero cha tsankho la boma lopanda pake lochitira tsankhu lochitira ndi opunduka chimene chimalungamitsa mankhwala opangika. Komabe, mu [FLT:] Garrettletss v. Lane [FFFF:] [5] [5] [200] [200], Khoti ikulu la Zigalamu ya II inagwira ntchito monga ngati chidindo cha kuyenera kulembetsa chikalata cha milandu, ngakhale kuti chilomomo.
  • Act ya Banja ndi Medical Let (FMLA ) : Makonzedwe a FMLA "kudzisamalira" (kulola kupuma kwa wolembedwa ntchito kukhala mkhalidwe wowopsa wa thanzi) adakaikiridwa mu [[FLT:] Coleman v. Khoti la Zifunsiro za Mary [1] chifukwa chakuti Nyumba za Malamulo analibe umboni wa chisembwere cha boma lochirikiza. Komabe, makonzedwe a banja (kusamalira mwana watsopano kapena chiŵalo chodwala) anachirikizidwa mu [FLT:] NUNIVA Dipatimenti ya Zipulumu za Anthu. [bbb:]
  • Tsankho la Nyengo mu Adreat Act (ADEA)[FLT : Mu [[FLT:] KIMEl . Florida Board of Regents [1] [2000], khoti linanena kuti Courts siingatetezere boma la ADEA chifukwa chakuti lamulo loletsa tsankho la nyengo limene silinatsutse kutetezera Classian (kumene kumalola zaka zoikizidwa pansi pa kupenda kopeka).
  • Act ya Pansi pa Malamulo a Ntchito (FLSA) ndi malamulo ena I : Pambuyo pa Siminole FUTA , Congress sangagwiritsire ntchito mphamvu yake ya malonda kapena Mfundo zina I ku chitetezero cha boma. Motero, suti zotsutsana ndi maboma polipira ndalama zowonjezereka pansi pa FLSA zaletsedwa kusiyapo ngati boma kapena boma la boma la . Onani [[FLT: 4.]Alden v. Maine.[FL:5] (kufunitsitsa kwa lamulo la khoti la masuti).

Milandu imeneyi ikusonyeza kusamala kosavuta: Nyumba za Malamulo zingatetezere boma paupandu pamene zichitapo kanthu kukakamiza Kusintha kwa Zalamulo kwa 14 ndi 14, koma Khoti lidzapenda mosamalitsa zonse ziŵiri mbiri ya malamulo ndi kuyenera kwa pakati pa mankhwalawo ndi kuswa lamulo.

Ziletso za Chiweruzo pa Mphamvu ya Mabungwe

Fuko la Seminole ndi Mfundo I

Chigamulo cha 1996 mu [FT: 0] SEMINOLE FURY of Florida v. Florida chinali nthaŵi yotha. Khoti, m’lingaliro la Mfumu Justice Rehnquist, linagamula kuti Indiya Commerce Claus (Ulamu wa IFUUF) sanapereke ulamuliro ku chitetezero cha boma. Nkhaniyo inayambika kuchokera ku Andiya Gaming Regural Act, imene inalola mafuko a Indian kusuta m'khoti ya boma kukakamiza kukambirana kwa chikhulupiriro pa magawa. Khotilo linakhulupirira kuti Countration 11 Thumite inaletsa masuti otero. Mowonjezereka, [FL: FUT] [FFFT] [FT] [FFT] [FFT] [4] kuti chikaneromedire chikane chigamu cha Gropediase . Couption (5]) chikasumpse . Coumediase . . Coumed K. Coumedia

Kupenda Kolimba ndi Kuyesa Kotsatira

Mu Dolotala ya Boerne v. Flores (1997), khoti linakhazikitsa "kulinganiza ndi kulinganiza" muyezo wokagamula lamulo lopangidwa pansi pa Gawo 5 la Jeneti Amendment. Mlandu wokhudza ufulu wa kukonzanso zinthu (RFRA), umene unagwiritsidwa ntchito pa maulamuliro. Khotilo linagamula kuti RFRA siinali njira yoyenerera yochitira zinthu pa malamulo (ufulu wachipembedzo). Mayeso amodzimodziwo agwiritsidwa ntchito m'nkhani yoteteza: pamene Nyumba za malamulo, khoti limafufuza kaya zolemba za malamulowonetsa kuti zisonyeze ngati lamulolo sizikusinthani ndi kukonza kapena kukonza chigamulo.

Kuyesa kumeneku kwatulutsa zotulukapo zosasintha. . [FLT] . [FLT :1] [makonzedwe a banja] (makonzedwe amwambo osungidwa), Khoti linapeza kuti maboma anapatulana pamaziko a mwamuna ndi mkazi popereka, chotero kuwerengera kunali kolinganiza. [[FLT:] Garett [[FLT:]] [[FLT]] [FLT]] [3] [kapena kuti mlandu wa Ifewetsa), Khoti linagamula kuti mbiri ya kukondera anthu opunduka inali yosakwanira kulungamitsa. Khoti lachi lachigamula ndi losaimbidwa ndi losaimbidwa ndi mlandu wina.

Zigamulo za Khoti Lalikulu Kukwaniritsa Malire

  • [[FLT: 0] ... Florida [1] (1996] Mfundo I.
  • Dolopo la Boerne v. Flores [1] (1997): Congruence ndi kupima kwa mlingo.
  • Florida Preparey Postsecondary Education Infect Board v. College Savings Bank [1] (1999): Kuchotsa mu nkhani zachilolezo ndi chizindikiro; palibe njira ya kutsutsa boma.
  • Kimel v. Florida Board of Regents (2000): ADEA kuchotsa kunalibe ntchito.
  • . . . . . . . . "[FLT: 1] (": ADA Umutwe I kuchotsa .
  • [[NTL:0] Nevada Dipatimenti ya Malo a Anthu v. Hibbs [1] (2003): Gawo la FMLA likugwira ntchito.
  • [[MLT: 0] Lene (2004): ADA Umutwe II kuseweretsa kuchirikiza kuyenerera kwa kuyenera kwapadera.
  • United States v. Georgia (2005]: Kuchotsa II kovomerezeka kaamba ka kuswa kwenikweni kwa Kusintha kwa 14
  • Coleman v. Khoti la Apilo la Maryland [1] (2016): KhMLA mwiniwake kakonzedwe ka zachitetezo kasagwire ntchito.
  • Allen v. Cooper[FLT:] (2020): Congress singaletse chitetezo cha boma chosokonezeka pansi pa Copyright Remedificiation Act chifukwa cha kusakwanira kwa chilolezo cha boma.

Zochitika Zaposachedwapa ndi Mavuto Omwe Akupitirizabe

Zolemba ndi Zinthu Zophunzitsa

Mu [[FLT: 0] Allen v. Cooper[FLT:] [20] [20], Bwalo Lapamwamba linavomereza kuti Couble Remediy Clarification Act (CRCA) ya 1990, imene inanenedwa kukhala chitetezero cha boma cha kulephera kuletsa kulembetsa, inali yosagwirizana. Khotilo linagwiritsira ntchito chigwirizano ndi kuyesa kolinganiza ndipo linapeza kuti Nyumba ya Malamulo sinalembe chisonyezero cha malamulo ophwanya malamulo oyenera kulungamitsa. Kagan, kulemba za Khoti la chivomezi, linalingalira kuti Courage ingayesenso ndi cholembedwa chabwino, koma monga 2025, idakalibe kuchokera ku masuti a bungwe lolamulira. Momwemo. Momwenso, ndi chikalata chotsutsa malamulo otsutsa [FOctive [F] [F3]

Kuloŵa M’mabanki ndi Magulu Ena Oyendera M’maudindo

Mbali ina ya mavuto ndiyo ulamuliro wa olephera kubweza ngongole. Pansi pa [FLT Virginia Community College v. Katz [1] (2006), Khoti linavomereza kuti limaloleza chitetezo chawo mwa kukhazikitsa Bankruptic Claus wa malamulo, kulola mapangano a zandalama kuchotsa ngongole ndi kupezanso chuma m'zigawo. Nkhaniyi ndi yosiyana kwambiri chifukwa imadalira pa "plan of Convention" nthanthi [1] yakuti kapangidwe ka malamulo a boma kakusonyeza kuvomerezana ndi mfundo zina za boma. Nkhani za Bankructcy joltics projectives zotsutsana ndi maboma zidakali zolonetseka. Komabe, Khoti silinawonjezera maganizo ameneŵa kumadera ena.

Zivalo za Boma la Boma la Federal ndi Maboma Ena

Kuli kotsimikizirika kuti boma la boma lenilenilo lingasunge maulamuliro popanda kuswa chitetezo cha kudzilamulira. Onani United States v. Texas (1892). Mofananamo, boma lina lingasunge boma lina m'ulamuliro woyamba wa Khoti Lalikulu. Kupatula kumeneku kumazikidwa pa lingaliro lakuti kutetezera kodziimira kumatetezera maboma kwa anthu kwaumwini, osati boma, oloŵerera.

Kuthandiza Ana

Ngakhale pamene Congress ilephera kuletsa kutetezeredwa kwa malamulo kwa chiwopsezo, ofufuza angafunebe mpumulo wowopsa kwa akuluakulu a boma pansi pa chiphunzitso cha Young [FLT:]. Zimenezi zimalola mathithithi opitirizabe kuswa malamulo a boma mwa kugwiritsa ntchito nduna za boma (m.g., loya wamkulu kapena mutu wa bungwe) muudindo wawo. Mankhwalawo ali oyembekezeredwa [1] kuteteza kuvulala kwa mtsogolo ndipo samafuna boma kulipira chopereka cha ndalama zake. Chiphunzitsochi chimakhalabe chiŵiya chofunika kwambiri choperekera kuyenera kwa boma polimbana ndi maboma, ngakhale pamene ziwopsezo sizikupezeka.

Malamulo Atsopano

M'makhoti aposachedwapa, opanga malamulo alingalira ndalama zambiri zobwezera kukhoza kwa kusungirira maboma kaamba ka kuswa malamulo a boma. "State Immuniny Reformation Act" I ikayesa kuchotsa Article Article I bar mwa kupempha mphamvu ya Congress pansi pa Malamulo ndi Kuyenera Claus limodzi ndi kusungitsa kwa 1449 Demendment. Komabe, mapepala otero amayang'anizana ndi zopikitsa zazikulu za lamulo. Khotilo lakhulupirira mosalekeza kuti kumvetsetsa kwa mbiri yakale kwa malire a ufulu wa kutetezera ufulu wa boma kuyenera kukhutiritsa mphamvu ya Congresskorès, ndipo lamulo latsopano lirilonse lifunikira kukhutiritsa mphamvu ya kulinganiza ndi kulinganiza koyenera kwa lamulo lakuyendetsa mkhalidwe woipa.

Zofunika Zoti Titsatire pa Nkhani ya Kulamulira

Kukakamiza Ufulu wa Nzika

Kulephera kwa kuchotsa lamulo kuli ndi zotsatirapo zenizeni. Pamene maboma aswa malamulo a ufulu wachibadwidwe a boma, anthu angalephere kupeza chiwombolo cha ndalama m'khoti la boma. Iwo ayenera kudalira pa chithandizo choperekedwa, malamulo ogwirizana, kapena zochita zosungitsa zochitidwa ndi Dipatimenti ya Chilungamo ya U.S. Izi zingachepetse mphamvu yoletsa ufulu wa anthu ndi kuika mtolo wolemera pa malamulo a boma. Mwachitsanzo, mabwana a boma amene amasankha antchito opunduka sangakhale oimbidwa mlandu wa kuwonongeka pansi pa ADA (ngati mlanduwo ugwetsedwa kunja kwa [[FLT:]] [FLT:]]) kuchotsapo, kusiya wantchito ndi kuthekera kwa kusungidwa kapena mfulu kukana kwa boma mu boma.

Kuŵerengera Maboma

Ochirikiza mphamvu yodzitetezera kwa anthu odzilamulira amanena kuti imatetezera chuma cha boma ku mavuto osadziŵika bwino, kulola maboma kugaŵira chuma mogwirizana ndi chosankha cha demokrase. Amatsutsa kuti kuweruza kwaumwini kuli njira yolakwika yowongolera boma; mmalomwake, njira ya ndale zadziko ndi kusungidwa kwa boma kumapereka kuŵerengera kokwanira. Otsutsa amatsutsa kuti kaŵirikaŵiri otetezera kulakwa kwa boma amasiya mikhole ya kusadzisunga popanda mankhwala, kuchepetsa lamulo. Kulimbana pakati pa malingaliro ameneŵa kumasonkhezera nkhondo zachiweruzo ndi za malamulo zimene zikupitirizabe.

Mbali ya Kuvomerezana kwa Boma

Maboma angapatule modzifunira chitetezo chawo cha ufumu, mwa kuvomereza kuvomereza ku bwalo lamilandu la boma mwachisawawa kapena mwa kulandira ndalama za boma zogonjera ku suti yotero. Maboma ambiri akhazikitsa ozemba ochepera kupyolera mwa machitidwe a tort kapena mwa kulola mapangano ena. Ndiponso, pamene boma lichotsa mlandu ku khoti la boma, ungawonedwe kukhala wotetezedwa ku chitetezero kaamba ka zimene zanenedwazo. Komabe, ozemba ayenera kukhala omveka bwino ndi osatsutsika.

Kumaliza: Kukambitsirana Kokhudza Lamulo

Boma lodziimira lidakali mbali yaikulu ya lamulo la lamulo. Mpando wa Kusintha kwa Khumi ndi Lachisanu, poyamba ndi kuvomereza kochepa ku [FL: 0] Chachikolm . Khoti Lalikulu latembenuzidwa kukhazikitsa lamulo lalamulo la kutetezera ku masuti a munthu. Congress, pamene lili ndi mphamvu yaikulu ya kutetezera kuti chitetezero cha pa Gawo 5 la 14th Amendment, chiyenera kugwira ntchito mkati mwa malire okhwima a chiweruzo. Khoti Lali lalikulu ndi kuyesa kulinganiza kwake kumatsimikizira kuti kuphwanya malamulo kwa lamulo kumakhala kowona mtima m’malo okondera. Zosankha zaposachedwapa zonga [FLD2:] zonse. Coopersev [FF:3] kwa anthu ogwirizana, omwe ali ogwirizana ndi ufulu waunika. [FF.F.NUT.]

Kuti mupezenso bukuli, fufuzani zinthu zotsatirazi: