Kufotokoza Mafuko: Si Magaŵano Amphamvu

Pamaziko ake, chigwirizano cha boma ndi dongosolo la boma limene mphamvu yake imagaŵidwa mwalamulo pakati pa ulamuliro wapakati (ufuko) ndi magulu achigawo (chigawo kapena chigawo). Mosiyana ndi dongosolo laudindo kumene boma lalikulu lili ndi ulamuliro wotheratu, kapena mgwirizano kumene maboma akusunga ulamuliro waukulu, boma limapanga malo apakati. Ku United States, zimenezi zikutanthauza kuti maboma onse aŵiri a boma ndi maboma a boma agwirizana, kaŵirikaŵiri atha kufotokoza, maudindo awo apadera. kulingana pakati pa ulamuliro wa dziko ndi wakwawo sikusinthasintha nthaŵi; imasintha nthaŵi kudzera m'malamulo, maulamuliro, ndi zikhoti zandale. Kumvetsetsa kumeneku nkofunika kwa aliyense amene akufuna kumvetsetsa malamulo, mmene mautumiki amaperekedwe, ndi mmene anthu angazindikiridwa.

Federalism samangopereka ntchito pansi. Imapanga dongosolo limene mlingo uliwonse wa boma ungachite modziimira pawokha mkati mwa malo ake, komabe uyeneranso kugwirizana ndi wina. Uchifumu wamitundu iŵiri umenewu ndiwo umachititsa dongosolo la U.S. "ndipo kaŵirikaŵiri kutsutsana. Kulimbana pakati pa umodzi wa dziko ndi kusiyana kwa malo ndiko mbali ya moyo wa ndale zadziko wa Amereka, kuyambira pa miyezo ya maphunziro kufikira ku malamulo a zaumoyo ndi chitetezo cha malo okhala.

Maziko a Mbiri Yakale: Kuchokera pa Kugwirizana Kufikira ku Malamulo

Ulendo wopita ku boma la America unayamba ndi kulephera kwa nkhani za Confederation (1781-1789). Kuyesa kwa boma loyamba kunachititsa mgwirizano womasuka wa maboma achifumu, ndi Nyumba ya Malamulo yofooka yomwe sikanatha kulipira msonkho, kuyang'anira malonda, kapena kukhazikitsa malamulo mwachindunji kwa nzika. Chotsatira chinali chipwirikiti cha zachuma ndi nkhondo ya mayiko. Opanga malamulo a U.S., kukumana ku Filadelphia mu 1787, anayesa kuthetsa zofooka zimenezi pamene boma linasunga ufulu.

James Madison, Alexander Hamilton, ndi Federalist adatsutsana kaamba ka boma lamphamvu la dziko, koma anayang'anizana ndi chitsutso chowopsa kuchokera kwa a Anti-Fedalist omwe anawopa ulamuliro wankhanza. Kulolerana kunali dongosolo la [[FLT: 0] maulamuliro olamuliridwa [ . "Nndandanda ya maulamuliro a boma operekedwa ku boma la boma [1] pamene maulamuliro ena onse anasungidwa ku maboma. Kulolera kumeneku kunavomerezedwa mu Dementi Ya khumi: “Maulamulirowo sanaperekedwe ku United States ndi Lamulo, kapena kuletsedwa ndi United States, amasungidwa ndi United States, kapena anthu onse.

Malamulowo anakhazikitsanso njira ya ndi mapikicailo kudutsa nthambi ndi milingo ya boma. Supremacy Claus (Article VI) anapanga lamulo la boma kukhala lamulo lapamwamba koposa m'dziko, koma kokha pamene Nyumba za Malamulo zichita mogwirizana ndi ulamuliro wake walamulo. Maluso odabwitsa ameneŵa ayesedwa mobwerezabwereza, makamaka mkati mwa Nkhondo ya Chiŵeniŵeni, New Deal, ndi ufulu wa anthu, nthaŵi iliyonse pamene ayesanso kulinganiza kwa ulamuliro wa dziko ndi wa dziko.

Department Yoyambirira: Kulimbana ndi Gulu la Oyang’anira Anzawo Kufalikira

Kwa zaka za zana loyamba la mbiri ya America, chitsanzo chachikulu chinali chipani cha boma, kaŵirikaŵiri poyerekezera ndi “keke yophikira. [1] Chipinda chilichonse cha boma . Chinakhala ndi maudindo osiyana. Boma linasamalira nkhani zachilendo, chitetezo cha dziko, malonda a mayiko, ndi kubwereka ndalama. Maboma anayang'anira ulamuliro wa dziko, maphunziro, malamulo, ndi malamulo a banja. Kupatukana kumeneku kunachirikizidwa ndi Khoti Lapamwamba monga [[FL:] [FLT]] ndi ufulu wa Mary . [FLT:] [5]

Mitundu ya Mafuko: Chitsanzo Chozungulira

M’kupita kwa nthaŵi, akatswiri apeza mitundu yosiyanasiyana, iliyonse imasonyeza nthanthi ya ndale zadziko ndi yachiweruzo yofala ya nyengo yake.

Dual Federalism (Layer Cake)

Monga momwe taonera, maboma aŵiri anagogomezera kulekana kwakukulu. Maboma a dziko ndi boma lililonse linkagwira ntchito m'mabungwe awo popanda kutengerapo kanthu. Chitsanzo chimenechi chinalamulira kuyambira pa kukhazikitsidwa mpaka m'ma 1930. Khoti Lapamwamba kaŵirikaŵiri linasiya malamulo a boma amene analingaliridwa kukhala akuloŵerera pa mphamvu ya boma, monga ngati malamulo a ntchito ya ana mu Hammer v. Dagenhart .

Kugwirizana kwa Mabanja (Kachisi Wosalimba)

Great Depression and the New Decreate inayamba chigwirizano cha boma, kumene milingo yonse ya boma inagwirira ntchito pamodzi kusamalira mavuto a dziko. M’chitsanzo ichi, boma linagwiritsira ntchito zisonkhezero zolimbikitsa boma pa maprogramu monga inshuwalansi ya ulova, zinsinsi, ndi ubwino wa moyo. Mafanizowo anachoka ku keke ya nkhanu ndi kuiika keke ya mabula, ndi mathayo oyendera limodzi. Khoti Lalikulu linamasulira motakata za Commercial Claus mu Wickard v. Filkill[FLT] [12] [192]

Federalism Yopanga (1960s-1970)

Pansi pa Pulezidenti Lyndon B. Johnson’s Great Society, kuwonjezera kuloŵerera kwa boma ngakhale kuwonjezera. Boma la dziko linanyalanyaza maboma ena, kupereka mphatso zachindunji ku mizinda, zopanda phindu, ndi mabungwe a anthu. Programu monga Medicaid ndi Head Start zinaphatikizapo zitsogozo za boma ndi mikhalidwe yogwirizana ndi ndalama. Kulingalira kumeneku kunali kofuna kuyang'anira umphaŵi ndi ufulu wa anthu komanso kuwonjezera ulamuliro wa boma ndi zochitika za m’dzikolo.

New Federalism (1980säPresente)

Kuyambira ndi Pulezidenti Richard Nixon ndi kupitiriza ndi Ronald Reagan, New Federation [[FLT: 1] New Federation . Izi zinaphatikizapo zopinga zimene zinapereka kusinthika kowonjezereka m'kugwiritsira ntchito ndalama za boma, limodzinso ndi kusinthika kwa maprogramu ofanana ndi kukhazikitsa uyang'aniro pansi pa 1996 Personal Junice ndi Work Provition Act. Chizoloŵezicho chapitirizabe m'zaka makumi angapo aposachedwapa, ndi Khoti Lapamwamba m'nkhani zonga United States v. Lopez[FLT:] (1995]) ndi [FLT:] printz. v [UnitedFLT:]

Khoti Lalikulu Loyang’anira Magulu Olamulira

Khoti Lalikulu limachita mbali yaikulu m’kulongosola malire a boma. Zigamulo zake sizimathetsa kokha mikangano yakutiyakuti komanso zimakhazikitsa zitsanzo zimene zimaumba dongosolo lonse la ulamuliro wa Amereka. Nazi milandu yambiri yapadera yoposa ija ya m’nkhani yoyambirira imene ikuchitira fanizo mphamvu imeneyi.

Mphamvu ya Fonsel Yofutukuka

  • Mcloch v. Maryland [1] (1819) : kutsimikizira kuti boma la boma lili ndi mphamvu zotchulidwa kwambiri kuposa zimene zandandalikidwa m'Malamulo, ndi kuti boma silingakhoze kukhoma msonkho wa mabungwe a boma.
  • Gibbons v. Ogden [1] (1824) : Kumasulira kwa Nyumba za Malamulo kuyang'anira malonda a mayiko, kukhazikitsa maziko alamulo a ulamuliro wa boma pa ntchito zachuma zodutsa madera.
  • [FLT ] Mawu a ku Atlanta Motel v. United States[FLT ] (1964) : Anauona Chikalata cha Chigawo cha zoyenera za 1964 kukhala lamulo lovomerezeka la Commun Rights Claus, kuweruza kuti tsankho la mafuko m'malo ogona a anthu onse linayambukira kwambiri malonda a mayiko.

Kuchepetsa Mphamvu ya Gulu

  • United States v. Lopez . [FLT :2] (1995] : Kwa nthaŵi yoyamba m'zaka makumi asanu ndi limodzi, Khoti linagamula lamulo la boma la kupitirira Claus. Chikalata cha Gun-Free School Zoners chinasungidwa kukhala chosakhudzana ndi mphamvu zachuma, motero madera a ulamuliro wa boma.
  • .[FLT .1] Kusindikizaz v. United States (1997): Makonzedwe oletsedwa a Brady Handgun Violence Prevention Act amene anakakamiza boma ndi akuluakulu a boma a m'dzikolo kuyang'anira malo amodzi. Khoti linalamula kuti boma la boma silingalamulire akuluakulu a boma kukhazikitsa lamulo la boma.
  • .[FLT :1] Federation of Independent Business v. Sebelius [1] (20:2) : Anawona lamulo la munthu aliyense la Afford Care Act monga lamulo lovomerezeka la mphamvu ya Congress yokhoma msonkho, koma anachepetsa kuwonjezereka kwa Medicaid monga ngati pulogalamu ya . Chigamulochi chinagogomezera malire a mphamvu ya kugwiritsa ntchito ndalama za boma.

Milandu imeneyi imasonyeza mmene kupangidwa ndi mafilosofi a Khotilo kumayambukirira mwachindunji kulinganizika kwa mphamvu. Rehnquist Court (1986-2005) inali yotetezera kwambiri ulamuliro wa boma, chikhoterero chimene chapitirizabe ndi Khoti la Roberts. Kaamba ka kuŵerenga kowonjezereka pa milandu yakutiyakuti, onani Project , imene imapereka mawu ndi malongosoledwe a m’Nkhoti Yapamwamba.

Federalism m’Chiphunzitso: Kufufuza za Malamulo Ofufuza za Usilikali

Kufufuza mmene boma limachitira zinthu ndi anthu osiyanasiyana pa nkhani za malamulo, kumasonyeza kuti dongosololi ndi lolimba ndiponso lofooka.

Kulembetsa Mwalamulo: Chigawo cha Boma

Mwinamwake palibe nkhani ina imene imasonyeza bwino kwambiri kusagwirizana pakati pa ulamuliro wa dziko ndi wa kumaloko kuposa lamulo la katswiri. Pansi pa lamulo la boma la Substances Act, chamba chimakhalabe Sedynal I, yoletsedwa ndi lamulo kugwiritsidwa ntchito kulikonse. Komabe, kuyambira 1996, maboma oposa 40 alola kugwiritsa ntchito chamba chamankhwala, ndipo oposa 20 alola kusanguluka. Zimenezi zimapangitsa malo abwinja ololedwa ndi lamulo la boma koma amaika boma paupandu. Obama ndi Biden oyang'anira ntchito za boma kulolera kutsata malamulo mwalamulo (Colee ndi ntchito zotsatira) koma nkhondo yaikuluyo imakhalabe yosatha. Zimenezi [FLT:] . [FLT.BRATIOTIOTIS .]

Kusintha: Kutsutsana Kosapatulika

Kusudzulidwa kuli thayo la boma, koma maiko ena ndi mizinda yatenga “malamulo otetezera oletsa kugwirizana ndi akuluakulu a boma oloŵa m'dziko. Ochirikiza akutsutsa kuti chuma cha kumaloko sichiyenera kugwiritsidwa ntchito posungitsa boma ndi kuti chikhulupiriro pakati pa anthu osamukira ndi apolisi a m'dzikolo chiyenera kusungidwa. Otsutsa amatsutsa kuti malamulo otero amapeputsa lamulo la dziko ndi kupanga malo otetezeka otetezera osamukirako. Maboma a boma ayamba kuletsa kapena bomalo lingaletsere maulamuliro a kachisi, monga momwe anayesera ndi Trump. Supreme Court in [FL:0] City in Chicago. Suptions [20])

Kusintha Kwabwino M’malo: Utsogoleri wa Boma ndi Kukana

Federalism m'malamulo a malo okhala ndi msanganizo wa kugwirizana ndi kukangana. Ceador Air ndi Clean Water Act imakhazikitsa miyezo ya dziko koma imapatsa maboma thayo la kukwaniritsa. California ali ndi malo apadera: pansi pa Deseare Air Act, ingathe kufunafuna zitsutso kuchokera ku EPA zopingamira zopimira zopinga kwambiri zochokera ku galimoto chifukwa cha mavuto ake owopsa a kuipitsa mpweya. Maboma ena angasankhepo kutengera miyezo ya California. Ulamuliro umenewu watsutsidwa, makamaka mkati mwa kuyesayesa kwa Trump kubwezera malamulo a zachuma. Ntchito ya California [FLT: 0] yolongosola bwino ndi EPAGLT: 1 [act:1] yolamulira posachedwapa mu [FLT:] Virginia. [FFT] . [2]

Kusamalira Thanzi: Kukula kwa Maboma ndi Kusankha

Affordble Care Act (ACA) inasonyeza zonse ziŵiri kuthekera ndi ngozi ya kugwirizanitsa boma. Lamulolo linadalira pa maboma kufutukula Medicaid kuphimba achikulire otsika, ndi boma likupereka ndalama zambiri za ndalama. Komabe, chigamulo cha Bwalo Lapamwamba cha 2012 chinapanga kufutukuka kwa maboma. Pa 2024, maboma 10 sanakulitse Mdicaid, kupanga mipata imene anthu ambiri otsika amapezamo ndalama zambiri kwa makolo a Medicaid koma kuchepetsa kwambiri mapulani a misika. Zimenezi zikugogomezera mmene ulamuliro wa boma ungafikire ku ku mautumiki opitira kumadera osiyanasiyana.

Maphunziro: Kuchokera pa Kulamulira Kwa kumaloko Kufika pa Miyezo ya Dziko

Maphunziro akhala chiyambi cha boma ndi malo a kumaloko, koma boma la boma lawonjezera mbali yake mwa malamulo onga ngati Elementary and Secondary Education Act (1965), Kulibe Child Chosiya Behind (2001), ndi Wophunzira Aliyense Wenefieds Act (2015). Malamulo ameneŵa amagwirizanitsa ndalama za boma ndi miyezo ya kuŵerengera, zopimira, ndi zowongolera za sukulu. Komabe maboma amalamulirabe maphunziro, mapepala a mphunzitsi, ndi kugaŵira ndalama. Nkhani zaposachedwapa zotsutsa chiphunzitso cha fuko ndi LGBTQ+ m'masukulu amasonyeza kuti maphunziro akhalabe a bwalo la malamulo a boma, ndi mabungwe a sukulu, makomiti a sukulu, ndi Department of Education mu zonse.

Mapindu a Mafuko: Chifukwa Chake Amakhalapobe

Ngakhale kuti boma lili ndi zinthu zambiri zovuta kuzimvetsa, lili ndi ubwino waukulu umene watsimikizira kuti lidzakhalapo kwa zaka zoposa 200.

  • Khomalitale : Woweruza Louis Brandeis motchuka akulongosola monga “maluso a demokrase. [1] Maboma angayese madongosolo a zaumoyo wapadziko lonse [1] monga ngati kusamala za thanzi ku Massachusetts, carbon prigation ku California, kapena kuchotsa mankhwala osokoneza bongo ku Oregon . Zotsatira zachipambano zingavomerezedwe ndi maboma ena kapena pamlingo wa boma.
  • Kusintha kwa malo akwanuko: Boma ndi maboma a kumaloko ali pafupi ndi nzika zawo ndipo angagwirizane ndi malamulo a chigawo ndi mikhalidwe. Zolemba za kanema zili ndi chisonkhezero chachindunji kwambiri pa akuluakulu a boma a kumaloko, ndipo boma lingakhale losavuta kwambiri kuthetsa mavuto a chitaganya.
  • Ziŵiya pa Mphamvu: [[FLT :1] mwa kugawa ulamuliro, boma limakupangitsa kukhala kovuta kuti gulu limodzi kapena chikondwerero chilamulire kotheratu. Nzika zingakope maboma ambiri ngati wina asonyeza kusalabadira.
  • Kusintha ndi Plarugos: m'dziko lalikulu, losiyana, university imalola kusiyana kwa malamulo ndi malamulo amene amasonyeza makhalidwe osiyana a chikhalidwe, zachuma, ndi zachikhalidwe. Zimenezi zingachepetse kutsutsana mwa kulola magulu okhala ndi malingaliro osiyana kukhala pansi pa malamulo osiyanasiyana m'dziko limodzimodzilo.

Mavuto a Mafuko: Kumbali ya Mafuko

Mbali zimodzimodzizo zimene zimapanga utundu kukhala wofunika zimadzetsanso mavuto osatha.

  • Kulingana ndi kusalingana: Pamene maboma ali ndi malamulo osiyana, nzika m'dziko lina zingakhale ndi ufulu wochepera kapena mautumiki kuposa a m'dziko lina. Mwachitsanzo, mkazi wofuna kuchotsa mimba angayende makilomita mazana ambiri chifukwa cha ziletso za boma, ndipo banja losapeza ndalama zambiri lingayang'ane ndi kusinthika kosiyana kwakukulu malinga ndi kumene amakhala.
  • Ifuku ku Boma: Madziko opikisana ndi kuikizira malonda angachepetse misonkho, kufooketsa malamulo, kapena kuchepetsa mautumiki a kakhalidwe, kupangitsa kuwonjezereka kwa malo okhala ndi miyezo ya antchito.
  • [[FLT: 0] Mavuto a Kugwira ntchito ndi Kugwirizanitsa: Kuletsa mopambanitsa kungatsogolere ku kujambula, kusokonezeka, ndi kugamula zala mkati mwa mavuto. Mliri wa CHOVID . Mliri wa CHOVID unavumbula mmene kugaŵikana kwa maboma kunalepheretsa kulabadira kogwirizana kwa mtundu, ndi maboma opikisana kaamba ka zogaŵira ndi kukhazikitsa malamulo osasinthasintha.
  • Gridbock ndi Pliv:[FLT :1] Imatsutsa chigawo cha dziko . monga ngati boma lozembetsa malamulo a ovota, kapena kutsutsa malamulo a boma a malo ndi ziŵiya. Kukangana kwa lamulo kumeneku kungachedwetse kapena kutsekereza malamulo ofunika.

Kuyerekezera: United States mu Global Context

Madongosolo oyerekezera zinthu angakuŵalitseni mphamvu ndi zofooka za chitsanzo cha ku America.

  • Germany : ku Germany, boma la boma (Bund) ndi maboma (Länder) akugawana mphamvu, koma Bundesrat (nyumba yoposa) imaimira mwachindunji maboma a boma. Chipani cha Germany chimagwirizana kwambiri ndi kugwirizana, limodzi ndi maboma ambiri a boma. Zimenezi zimachepetsa mtundu wa maufumu a U.S.
  • [[FLT: 0] Canada : [[FLT :1] dongosolo la boma la Canada limapereka maulamuliro ofunika, makamaka pa zaumoyo ndi chuma chachilengedwe. Komabe, boma la dziko liri ndi mphamvu zolimba ya kugwiritsa ntchito ndipo lingakhazikitse miyezo ya mtundu kupyolera mwa zopereka. Gulu la Quebec lochirikiza ufulu layesa malire a Canada.
  • Indiya: Indiya ndi dziko la boma lokhala ndi boma lalikulu. Lamulo limandandalika mitundu itatu ya maulamuliro: boma, boma, ndi kugwirizana. M’zochitika, boma lalikulu lalamulira maboma mwa kulamulira kwa maulamuliro ndi malamulo olola ulamuliro wa pulezidenti m’nthaŵi ya ngozi.
  • Brazil ndi Australia: zonse ziŵiri ziri ndi madongosolo a boma amene amapanga ulamuliro wapadera ku magawo. Uyang'aniro wa Brazil wakhala wozindikiritsidwa ndi kusalinganizika kwa mapangano ndi ziphuphu, pamene dongosolo la Australia liri lokhazikika ndi boma lapakati lolimba.

Kuyerekezera kumeneku kumasonyeza kuti university sindiwo pulani yoikika koma lingaliro losinthika limene limasinthira ku mwambo wa ndale zadziko ndi mikhalidwe ya mbiri yakale ya dziko lirilonse.

Kutsutsana kwa Patsogolo ndi Mtsogolo mwa Mafuko

Federalism idakali nkhani yamoyo m'ndale zadziko za America, ndi zigamulo zonse ziŵiri zikuitsatira mwa kusankha mogwirizana ndi lamulo lomwe lilipo. Kaŵirikaŵiri Republica amachirikiza ufulu wa maboma pankhani zonga kuchotsa mimba ndi kuletsa mfuti, pamene akuchirikiza kutha kwa boma pa kusamuka ndi malonda. Democrats amayanja kachitidwe ka boma pa zoyenera za nzika, zaumoyo, ndi chitetezo cha malo okhala, koma amachirikiza ufulu wa boma pa ukwati wauchiŵanda (womwe afuna kulowa m’dziko ndi kutsata Oberge) ndi mizinda yopatulika.

Mliri wa Chovid-19 unawonjezera mikangano imeneyi. Boma la boma linapereka chitsogozo koma linasiya zigamulo zambiri zaumoyo wa anthu ku boma. Maguwa a magulu aŵiri onsewo anapereka malamulo a akuluakulu otsekera, oletsa kuvala mapewa, ndi zofunika za katemera, kutsogolera ku ntchito ya malamulo achidule. Ena anatsutsa kuti yankho lokulirapo likanakhala logwira mtima kwambiri; ena anayamikira kulolera kwa boma. Khoti Lapamwamba linachirikiza ulamuliro wa boma la kukhazikitsa malamulo kwa antchito a zaumoyo m'nkhani zina koma linatsekereza malamulo a boma a olemba ntchito akuluakulu.

Kuyang'ana kutsogolo, mikhalidwe ingapo ingasinthe. Choyamba, “maphunzitso apamwamba a Khoti Lalikulu” angachepetse mphamvu za boma, kukakamiza zigamulo zambiri. Chachiŵiri, kuchuluka kwa mayiko ofiira ndi a bluu kungafulumize kuswa malamulo pa nkhani iliyonse yaikulu, kuyambira ku kuvotera ku malamulo amagetsi. Kachitatu, luso la zopangapangapanga lingatheketse demokrase ndi nzika kuyenderana ndi mayiko osiyanasiyana, kuchepetsa kufunika kwa dziko. Potsirizira pake, mavuto monga mavuto a boma a penshoni ndi ngongole za dziko lino lingakakamize kupendanso za mmene mathayo ndi ndalama za .

Kumaliza

Federalism si njira yokhazikitsira koma makonzedwe amphamvu ndi opikisana amene amaumba mbali iliyonse ya ulamuliro wa America. Imapereka maziko olinganizira kufunika kwa umodzi wa dziko ndi chikhumbo cha ufulu wa dziko, kulimbikitsa zonse ziŵiri kugwirizana ndi kulimbana pakati pa milingo yosiyanasiyana ya boma. Pamene mavuto atsopano akubuka kuchokera ku miliri ya kusintha kwa nyengo kupita ku ku kusokonezeka kwa luso la zopangapangapanga zinthu. Kulinganiza kwa ulamuliro wa boma ndi ulamuliro kudzapitirizabe kusinthika. Kumvetsetsa mbiri ya boma, maluso, ndi ziyambukiro zothandiza nkofunika osati kokha kwa ophunzira a boma komanso kwa nzika iliyonse imene ikufuna kugwirizana ndi dongosolo landale. Kupambana kwa ulamuliro wa dziko kumadalira pa mmene kumasinthira bwino mikhalidwe pamene kukusunga mapindu a democracy, kuŵerengera ufulu.