Table of Contents
Chiyambi cha Kudwala Matenda Aŵiri
Lamulo la kuwopsa kwa kaŵiri limaimira maziko a njira zaupandu m'malamulo wamba, otchuka kwambiri m'Chimasulidwe cha Fitepment ku United States: “Ngakhale munthu aliyense sadzaikidwa m’upandu umodzimodziwo kaŵiri kuikidwa m'maupandu kapena kuikidwa pathupi. [1] Pamaziko ake, chiphunzitsochi chimaletsa boma kupereka mlandu wa munthu nthaŵi zambiri pa kachitidwe ka upandu kamodzi pambuyo pa kukhululukidwa kapena kuvomerezedwa, ndipo chimaletsa chilango chambiri kaamba ka mlandu umodzimodziwo. Koma lamulolo nlosiyana kwambiri ndi linzake. Kugwiritsira ntchitonso umboni wochuluka kumabwalo osiyanasiyana, milandu yosiyanasiyana, kapena m'nkhani zosiyanasiyana zomveka ponena za kumene malire a kulakwa kuŵirikana ndi mmene mkhalidwewo ungagwiritsirire m’chikalata yatsopano yowonekera.
Kumvetsa mfundo zimenezi n’kovuta kwa maloya oteteza, oweruza, ndi oweruza mofanana. Kudutsana kwa zitetezero ndi maumboni oŵirikiza kumaphatikizapo osati chiphunzitso chalamulo komanso kumasulira kwa malamulo, lamulo la kuyang'anira kulekeka, ndi mfundo zenizeni za kufufuza kosiyanasiyana kotsutsana. Nkhaniyi ikupenda kuopsa kochitidwa ndi lamulo, kusiyana kumene kumalola umboni kugawana kapena kugwiritsidwa ntchito, ndi zitsanzo zofunika zimene zilipo masiku ano.
Maziko a Malamulo ndi Cholinga
Maupandu aŵiri sali kokha lamulo laukatswiri; amaimira chilungamo chachikulu. Malamulo a U.S. anavomereza kuti mphamvu ya wolamulira yobweretsa milandu mobwerezabwereza ingagwiritsiridwe ntchito kuvutitsa, kufooketsa, ndi kutsekereza munthu wopanda liwongo. Mwa kukonzanso mabwalo pambuyo pa chigamulo chomaliza, lamulolo limatetezera anthu ku mtolo wa malingaliro ndi wa zandalama, kusungitsa kutha kwa ziweruzo, ndi kuletsa boma ku “kuluma kwachiŵiri pa apulo". Pamene lilephera kutsimikizira mlandu wake nthaŵi yoyamba.
Kuchokera ku Mlatho Wachiŵili Wopalamula
Pamene kuli kwakuti ngozi yaŵiri ili chikopa champhamvu, iyo yakhala yosaikidwa bwino. Kupatula kumeneku kumapanga malo alamulo mmene umboni kuchokera ku kuzenga mlandu kusanachitike ungagwiritsiridwe ntchito potsatira popanda kuswa Malamulo. Kumvetsetsa chinthu chilichonse nkofunika kupenda pamene umboni ungaperekedwe ndi mmene ungaperekedwere kuchokera ku nkhani imodzi kupita kunkhani ina.
Chiphunzitso cha Mfumu Yosiyana
Chosiyana chachikulu kwambiri ndicho chiphunzitso chosiyanitsa maulamuliro, nthaŵi zina chotchedwa lamulo la ulamuliro wamitundu iŵiri. Pansi pa lamulo limeneli, munthu angaikidwe mlandu ndi boma ndi boma kaamba ka khalidwe laupandu limodzimodzilo chifukwa chakuti aliyense ali wolamulira wosiyana ndi malamulo ake ndi zikondwerero. Chifukwa chakuti kulakwa kuŵiri kokha kumatsekera mlandu wachiŵiri ndi wolamulira mmodzi, umboni wopezedwa m'kuzenga kwa boma ungagwiritsiridwe ntchito m'kuzenga kwa boma (kapena kulakwa kwake) popanda kuswa malamulo alamulo.
Mwachitsanzo, ngati woimbidwa mlandu wamasulidwa kukuba m'bwalo la boma, boma la boma lingaimbe mlandu wofananayo wakuba ndi mfuti ngati upanduwo uswanso lamulo la boma (m’ lekuatiso, unachitika pa malo a boma kapena kuphatikizapo kumanja a boma otetezedwa ndi boma. Umboni wonse woyambitsidwa m' kuzenga mlanduwo (malipoti, umboni, kusanthula kwa DNA [1] kungavomerezedwe m'nkhani ya boma, ngati ikumana ndi malamulo a boma. Khoti Lapamwamba linatsimikizira chiphunzitso chimenechi mu [[FLT: 0]]. United States [FLT:] (20)] (209), likusunga kuti ulamuliro wa ulamuliro wosiyanawo umakhalabe lamulo labwino. Lingaliro linasonyeza kuti kulakwa koŵiri kofananako kutchula “malamulo”.
Kuzenganso Malamulo Atachitika
Kupatula kwina kumabuka pamene mlandu utha m'makhoti olakwa. Ngati ajuli alephera kufika pa chigamulo (aupo woweruza), woweruzayo angatsutse woimbidwa mlandu pa milandu imodzimodziyo. M’kuzenga mlandu kwachiŵiriko, umboni wonse wa mlandu woyamba umawoneka bwino, wotsatira malamulo achibadwa. Mofananamo, ngati kulakwa kwa mlandu kwaperekedwa chifukwa cha kuonekera bwino kwa "chofunika jakisoni wakufa, cholakwa, kapena kulakwa kwa woimbidwa mlanduyo. Umboni wa mlandu woyamba wotayidwa ungakhalepo chifukwa chakuti chigamulo chomalizira cha kusudzulidwa kapena chigamulo chinaikidwa.
Chiyeso chachikulu nchakuti mabwalo olakwa ayenera kuperekedwa pazifukwa zimene sizilingana ndi kuyesa kuyesa. Ngati woweruzayo mwadala apangitsa kulakwa kuti apeze phindu, ngozi yoŵirikiza ingatsekenso. Uku kunali kusungidwa kwa Orogon v. Kennedy . [19982], kumene kunayala dandau: woimbidwa mlanduyo ayenera kusonyeza kuti wofuna kusonkhezera woimbidwa mlanduyo kuti asunge mlandu kulakwa.
Zitsimikizo ndi Maumboni Otsala
Pamene woimbidwa mlandu apereka chitsimikizo chipambano, boma limaloledwa kaŵirikaŵiri kuyesa woimbidwa mlandu pa milandu imodzimodziyo. Chikhululukiro chimasudzulidwa, ndipo mlanduwo umabwerera ku malo ozengedwa mlandu. Umboni wa mlandu woyambirira ngwosawoneka m'kuzenga kwa mlandu watsopano, wogonjera ku zigamulo zilizonse za apilo zimene zingakhale zitachotsa umboni wotsimikizirika. Komabe, ngati apiloyo igamula mlandu (chifukwa chakuti umboniwo sunali wokwanira mwalamulo), ukhoma makhomo oŵirikiza kaŵiri, ndipo umboniwo sungathe kugwiritsidwanso ntchito. Khoti Lapamwamba mu . United States
Kupereka Umboni Wosiyana wa Upandu Wosiyana
Ngakhale pamene mfumu imodzimodziyo yaphatikizidwa, umboni wochokera ku mlandu umodzi ungagwiritsiridwe ntchito kaŵirikaŵiri m'kuzenga kwina ngati mlandu wachiŵiri uphatikizapo mlandu wosasiyana. Kupima kwa Blockburger kumasankha ngati milandu iŵiri ili yofanana kapena yosiyana. Ngati njosiyana, boma lingaipereke mwapadera ndi kugwiritsiranso ntchito umboni [1] Kusonyeza kuti umboniwo ngwoyenerera ndi woyenerera m'kuchitika kwachiŵiri.
Mwachitsanzo, talingalirani woimbidwa mlandu wakuba ndi mfuti ndi kukhala ndi mfuti yosaloleka panthaŵi yakuba. Pansi pa Blockburger, izi ndi mlandu umodzimodziwo ngati mlandu wakuba uphatikizapo kale zida za mfuti, koma maulamuliro ambiri amawaona kukhala osiyana ngati afuna umboni wa mbali inayo. Ngati woweruza wa mlandu wa kuba ndi mfuti koma mlanduwo pambuyo pake ukuyamba pa mlandu wa mfuti, umboni umodzimodziwo ndi umboni wakuba mlanduwo ungabwezedwenso m’milandu. Mlandu wosaimbidwa ndi mlanduwo sanganene kuti mlanduwo uli mlandu woŵirikiza kaŵiri chifukwa chakuti mlanduwo uli mlandu wosiyana, ngakhale kuti mlanduwo uli mlandu wa m’manja mwa anthu ozenga mlanduwo.
Colleteral Estomal Mlandu wa Apandu
Chiletso chachikulu pa kugwiritsira ntchitonso umboni ku mayeso osiyanasiyana ndicho chiphunzitso cha [[FLT: 0] colteral estoppel (yodziŵikanso monga nkhani yapasadakhale). Ngakhale ngati milandu iŵiri ili yosiyana, nkhani yakuti inachitikadi ndipo kwenikweni inapangidwa ndi ajuli m'bwalo la mlandu lisanaikidwenso. Mwachitsanzo, ngati woimbidwa mlandu wakupha chifukwa chakuti wa mlanduwo sanapeze kuti wakupha, boma silingaimbe mlandu wofanana ndi mlandu wa kulakwa kwake pa chiphunzitso chakuti iye anali woimba mlanduyo .
Khoti Lapamwamba linakhazikitsa kufunsira kwa kuyang'anira kotsendereza estol m'milandu yaupandu mu Ashe v. Sunson [1] (1970). Pachifukwa chimenecho, woimbidwa mlandu anazengedwa mlandu wa mbala imodzi mwa oseŵera asanu ndi mmodzi a poker, koma oweruzawo anamasulidwa, ndipo kwenikweni anapeza kuti sanali mmodzi wa mbala. Bomalo kenaka linayesa kuti aphenso woimba wina wa poker. Khoti linanena kuti mlandu wachiŵiriwo unali woletsedwa chifukwa chakuti nkhani ya chilolezo inali itathetsedwa. Umboni wa mlandu woyambawo sunathe kuperekedwanso m'nkhani yachiŵiri yoyankha funsolo.
Colteracal estopel ingakhale chiŵiya champhamvu kwa oimbidwa mlandu, koma imafunikira kusanthula mosamalitsa kwa chigamulo cha oweruza. Ngati kuli kosatheka kugamula chimene gulu la ajuli linagamula, chiphunzitsocho sichingagwiritsiridwe ntchito. Ndiponso, nthaŵi zina boma lingapange zinenezozozozozo kuti lipeŵe kuikidwa pa mlandu mwa kuwazenga kuti chigamulo choyamba chisagamule mfundo iliyonse yofunika ku mlandu wachiŵiriwo.
Zothandiza Kuti Pakhale Umboni
Kusungidwa kwa malamulo ndi oweruza kaŵirikaŵiri amasonkhanitsa umboni wokhudzana ndi milandu yambiri yomwe ingachitike. DNA, zolembera za telefoni, zolemba za ndalama, ndi kuyang'anira zinthu zingagwiritsiridwe ntchito m'mayeso otsatizana pansi pa mfundo zosiyanasiyana za lamulo, malinga ngati kuopsa kwa kaŵiri kapena kutsekeredwa kwa pulogalamu sikumaletsa mlandu wachiŵiri. Komabe, kugwiritsa ntchitonso umboni kumayendera malamulo anthaŵi zonse a umboni ndi malamulo aunyolo. Ngati umboni upezedwa kudzera m'chikalata chofufuzira chimene chinachotsedwa, kapena ngati chikawonongeka ndi kuswa kwa lamulo loletsa mlandu woyamba, kungalepheretsedwe m'maganizikananso m'maweruzidwa kachiŵiri.
Mwachitsanzo, ngati kuulula kokakamiza kwa mlandu woyamba kunagwiritsiridwa ntchito kupeza chitsimikiziro chimene pambuyo pake chinasinthidwa, kuululako kungakhale kosatheka ngati kukakamizako sikunachiritsidwe. Kapena, ngati kuzenga koyambirirako kunatha m’kukhululukidwa chifukwa chakuti lamulo lochotsa linaletsa umboniwo, boma silingabwezeretse umboni umodzimodziwo m’kuyesa kwa pambuyo pake kwa mlandu wosiyana ngati mazikowo akhalabe. Nkhanizi zimafuna kuti oweruza ndi ofufuza atsimikizire kuti umboniwo upezedwe mwalamulo ndi kusungidwa kaamba ka kugwiritsiridwa ntchito kulikonse.
Zochitika Zazikulu ndi Chiyambukiro Chake
Zigamulo zingapo za Khoti Lalikulu zaumba malire a ngozi ndi umboni woŵirikiza kaŵiri. Pambuyo pa zija zotchulidwa kale, United States v. Dixon (1993) ndi mlandu wochititsa chidwi umene unavumbula mayeso a ngati milandu iŵiri n’ngofanana. Mu Dixon, khoti linavomereza kuti ma blockburger projectstion ndi mayeso okhawo oyesera kutsimikizira milandu, kukana “mayendedwe amodzi. Chigamulochi chilola oweruza kubweretsa milandu yambiri kuchokera kwa munthu mmodzi waupandu kugwira ntchito kwa nthaŵi yaitali pamene chigamulo chilichonse sichili. Monga chotulukapo, umboni wa mlandu umodzi ungagwiritsiridwenso m’kuzengo wotsatirapo pa mlandu wosiyana umene Blozezewa.
Nkhani ina yofunika ndi Hudson v. United States (1997]), yomwe inasiyanitsa zilango za upandu ndi zachiŵeniŵeni. Khotilo linanena kuti ngozi ya kaŵiri siimaika chilango chachiŵiri cha boma pambuyo pa mlandu wa upandu, ngakhale ngati chilangocho chizikidwa pa khalidwe limodzimodzilo, chifukwa chakuti ziŵeruzo za boma sizili “kubwezera chilango” chifukwa cha ziwopsezo zoŵirikiza. Umboni wa mlandu waupandu ukhoza kugwiritsidwanso ntchito m'kachitidwe ka boma. Lamulo limeneli lili ndi zotsatira zazikulu za kutaya, kubwezera, kubwezera, ndi chilango chaukatswiri, ndi chikalata chaumboni kuchokera ku kuzenga mlandu kwa apolisi kaŵirikaŵiri chimawonekera m'malamulo.
Nkhani ya Grady v. Corbin [[FL:1] (1990) poyamba inatengera “mayeso amodzimodziwo”, koma inagonjetsedwa zaka zitatu zokha pambuyo pake ndi Dixon [1] . Kusinthika kwa mwamsanga kwa lamulo kumagogomezera kufunika kwa kukhalabe ndi moyo limodzi ndi chitsanzo pokonzekera mmene angagwiritsire ntchito umboni m’mayesero ambiri. Otetezera ayenera kukhala okonzekera kutsutsa kugwiritsa ntchitonso umboni pa mabwalo aŵiri ndi otsegulira zipidi, pamene kuli kwakuti oweruza ayenera kuchita ntchito yawo yoletsa kumbuyo.
Malingaliro a Padziko Lonse ndi Zamtsogolo
Malamulo aupandu aŵiri amasiyana kwambiri m'malamulo. M'dziko la United Kingdom, Chiweruzo Chachilungamo chinapanga kulephera kochepa kolola kuzenga milandu yaikulu pamene “umboni watsopano ndi womveka” uonekera, ngakhale atamasulidwa. Uku ndi kutha kwa lamulo lamwambo. Msonkhano wa European on Human Rights umaletsa ngozi ziŵiri pa malamulo 7, koma maiko ambiri akambiranapo. Ku United States, palibe umboni wopezeka wokha pambuyo pa kuchotsedwa komaliza, ngakhale kuti maboma ena alingalira kuti kusintha kwa malamulo a boma. Kugwiritsira ntchitonso kwa umboni wa malamulo a boma kukanalamulidwa ndi malamulo a boma.
Njira zamakono zopimira kupima DNA, makamaka, zawonjezera mkanganowo. Ena amanena kuti ngati umboni watsopano wa DNA utsimikiziradi kukhala ndi liwongo pambuyo pa kukhululukidwa, boma liyenera kukhala lokhoza kuyesanso woimbidwa mlanduyo ndi kugwiritsira ntchito umboni wakale kumbali ya watsopano. Ena amatsutsa kuti kutha kwa kukhululukidwa kuyenera kukhala kotsimikizirika kutetezera ufulu wa munthu. Kufikira pano, Khoti Lapamwamba la U.S. silinavomereze kuti pali umboni watsopano, ndipo chigamulo changozicho chimakhala pafupi ndi balabulo lomalizira la mlandu wa kukana.
Anthu Ochita Zinthu Zosiyanasiyana Ayenera Kuwaganizira Bwino
Kaamba ka uphungu wodzitetezera, kumvetsetsa kugwiritsira ntchitonso kwa umboni kuli kofunika m'kupanga njira yaumboni yokwanira. Ngati wozenga mlandu ayang'anizana ndi milandu m'mabwalo onse a boma ndi a boma, kapena ngati kuyembekezera kuweruza kochuluka, uphungu uyenera kuyembekezera kuti umboni wonse wopezeka m'kufufuzako ungagwiritsidwe ntchito m'kuweruza kulikonse. Nthaŵi zina kuchotsa umboni umene ungakhale wochititsa kuipidwa m'bwalo limodzi ngakhale ngati wothekera mu lina. Kuyang'anira estol enkil ingagwiritsire ntchito, maloya otetezera ayenera kutsimikizira kuti mbiri yochokera ku kuzenga koyambirira imasonyeza bwino lomwe mfundo zinagamulidwa bwino.
Kwa oweruza, mfungulo yake ndiyo kulinganiza mosamalitsa milandu ya kuletsa kuopsa koŵirikiza kaŵiri pamene akutsimikizira kufunika koonekeratu kwa kufufuza komodzi. Kufunafuna chitsimikiziro pa mlandu waung'ono choyamba, ndiyeno kugwiritsira ntchito umboni umodzimodziwo kuyesa mlandu waukulu, sikungakhale kololedwa ngati zinenezozozozo zalingaliridwa kukhala zofanana pansi pa Blockburger. Njira yabwino ndiyo kubweretsa milandu yonse yopezeka panthaŵi imodzi, kapena kutsimikizira kuti mlandu uliwonse uli ndi mbali yosiyana. Pamene achifumu osiyana aloŵetsedwa, mapangano pakati pa boma ndi a boma angalole umboni kuchokera ku mlandu wina, koma chisamaliro chiyenera kutengedwa kupeŵa ku kupambana kumene kungatsogolera ku ku ku kulakwa kapena ku ku kulakwa kwa oima pa malo oima.
Kumaliza
Maupandu aŵiri amatetezera anthu ku kutsenderezedwa kwa maulamuliro mobwerezabwereza, koma sichopinga chachikulu cha kugwiritsira ntchito umboni wina m'mikhalidwe yonse. Chiphunzitso cha audindo osiyana, mtundu wosiyana wa milandu yosiyanasiyana, kukhoza kukonzanso pambuyo pa kulakwa kapena kukopa, ndi malire a kuyang'anira kuima kwa njira zonse zololeka zololeza zogwiritsira ntchito umboni wosonkhanira wina. Makhoti akupitiriza kuyeretsa malire ameneŵa mwa lamulo, [[FLT:] [FLT: 0] monga momwe amawonedwa mu [FLT]] [FLT] [F:2] [FLT] [] [] [2] [3] [ziyelekezero zopindulitsa, ndi kutetezera kopanda chitetezero chalamulo.
Pomalizira pake, kulinganiza kochitidwa ndi maupandu oŵirikiza kumasonyeza ponse paŵiri umphumphu wa njira yachiweruzo ndi kuyenera kwa munthu kwa kumasuka ku kuvutitsidwa. Monga momwe sayansi ya zasayansi ndi kutsutsana kochuluka kumasinthika, choteronso mafunso onena za mmene umboni ungagaŵidwire ndi kugwiritsidwa ntchito. Koma lamulo lachikulu limakhalabe: munthu atayesedwa bwino ndi kupezedwa chiweruzo chomalizira, boma liyenera kuvomereza chotulukapo chimenecho . Pa mawindo opapatizawo, umboni wa m'mbuyo ungakhale ndi moyo m’nkhani yatsopano.