Maziko a Mafuko a Mafuko

Kugawa kwa mphamvu pakati pa maboma a boma ndi a boma, otchedwa kuti boma, ndi maziko a Lamulo la United States. Opanga maulansi adapanga dala dongosolo limene limalinganiza boma lamphamvu ndi ufulu wa maboma. Malamulo ameneŵa amawonekera kwambiri ku nthambi ya malamulo, kumene Nyumba za Malamulo, ndi mabungwe a boma, ndi mabungwe alionse akumaloko, alionse akumachita zinthu zosiyana koma nthaŵi zina zotsatizana. Kumvetsetsa mphamvu imeneyi nkofunika popenda mmene malamulo amapangidwira, kukakamiza, ndi kutsutsa dziko lonse.

Malamulo a U.S. amapereka mphamvu zakutizakuti ku boma la boma pamene akusunga maulamuliro ena onse ku maboma. Makonzedwe ameneŵa analinganizidwa kuletsa utsenderezo mwa kuchotsa ulamuliro ndi kulola maboma kukhala monga malaboratori a demokrase. Pazaka mazana aŵiri, malire pakati pa boma ndi mphamvu ya boma ayesedwa, kumveketsedwa, ndi kukonzedwanso mwa malamulo, malamulo, ndi malamulo apamwamba.

Maulamuliro a Federal: Okhala ndi Malamulo Olamulira ndi Osagwiritsiridwa Ntchito

Maulamuliro a boma aikidwa kwakukulukulu m'Chigawo I, Chigawo 8 cha Malamulo. Maulamuliro ameneŵa ali ndi malire koma amphamvu, ophimba madera kumene kugwirizana kwa mtundu kuli kowopsya. Maulamuliro aakulu a boma akuphatikizapo:

  • Malonda apakati pa maiko: The Commercial Claus (Chithunzi I, Chigawo 8, Claus 3) imapatsa Nyumba za Malamulo kulamulira malonda “pakati pa maiko angapo. Mphamvu imeneyi yatembenuzidwa mokulirapo kukwaniritsa osati malonda okha komanso zoyendera, zolankhulana, ndi ntchito zachuma zimene zimakhudza kwambiri malonda a mayiko. Mwachitsanzo, boma lingakhazikitse miyezo ya chitetezo cha ndege, kuyendetsa misika ya dziko, ndi kukhazikitsa malamulo oletsa kusungitsa ndalama.
  • Kupereka ndi kuwonongera ndalama: Nyumba za malamulo zingapereke misonkho yachiw, ntchito, zikalata, ndi kutumiza ndalama zolipirira ngongole ndi kupereka kaamba ka ubwino wa onse. Mphamvu ya kuwonongera ubwino wa onse yalola boma kupereka maprogramu aakulu onga Social Security, Medicare, ndi maprojekti a zamaziko. Kupyolera, Washington ikhozanso kusonkhezera malamulo a boma m’madera onga ngati maphunziro ndi chitetezo cha m’misewu.
  • Kutsutsa nkhondo ndi kukonzanso asilikali: Congress yokha ikhoza kuyambitsa nkhondo, kukweza ndi kuchirikiza magulu ankhondo, kugaŵira ndi kusungitsa gulu lankhondo, ndi kupanga malamulo olamulira magulu ankhondo. Chigamulo cha Nkhondo cha 1973 chikufunanso pulezidenti kufunsira Congress asanachititse asilikali nkhondo.
  • Kusintha ndi kulinganiza: Boma la boma limakhazikitsa malamulo ofanana kaamba ka amene angaloŵe m'dziko, pansi pa mikhalidwe, ndi mmene anthu osakhala a m'midzi angakhalire nzika zachibadwa. Maboma ali ndi mbali zochepera, makamaka m'kugwirizanika ndi boma kapena m'madera onga a m'chigawo chakuno kwa nzika zosaikiridwa.
  • Kupereka ndalama ndi kuwongolera phindu lake: Congress iri ndi kuyenera kwapadera kwa kuumba ndalama, kusindikiza, ndi kuyendetsa mtengo wake. Zimenezi zimaletsa maboma kutulutsa ndalama zawo ndipo zimatsimikizira chuma cha dziko.
  • Malo oyenera ndi maokhera: Kuchirikiza kuyambitsidwa kwa zinthu, Nyumba ya Malamulo imakhazikitsa chitetezo kwa opanga ndi opanga kupyolera mwa kulembetsa ndi malamulo a projekiti, kutsimikizira dongosolo la dziko limodzi.
  • [[FLT :0] Ma maofesi a Post ndi misewu yapaposi: Boma la boma limagwira ntchito mu Utumiki wa Postal ya U.S. ndipo lingakhazikitse njira zapositi.

Kupyola mphamvu zimenezi zotchulidwa, Imfact and Theological Classicle (Chithunzi I, Chigawo 8, Classia 18) imapatsa Nyumba ya Malamulo onse omwe ali “oyenerera ndi oyenera” kaamba ka kukwaniritsa mphamvu zake zotchulidwa. Mphamvu imeneyi yagwiritsidwa ntchito kulungamitsa kupangidwa kwa Federal Reserve, malamulo a mfuti pansi pa Gun Control Act ya 1968, ndi kukhazikitsidwa kwa mabungwe a boma monga ngati bungwe la Environmental Protection.

Malonda ndi Chisinthiko Chake

Palibe mphamvu ya boma imene yakhala yotsutsana kwambiri kuposa Commerce Claus. Zigamulo za Khoti Lalikulu, zonga ngati Gebbons v. Ogden (1824), adapereka mawuwo kumasulira kotakata, kulola Congress kuyang'anira madzi otsala ndi malaisensi a sitima zapamadzi. M'nthawi ya New Deal, Khoti linawonjezera mphamvu za boma m'nkhani ngati [[FLT:]] NLB v. Jones & Laughlin Spel. (1937] ndi [FL:] . Wickard v. [FFLD:5] [194] [19] [194], amene angalamulitse ntchito ya zachuma, kuyendetsa malonda, kuyendetsa malonda, kuyendetsa malonda kwa zaka makumi ambiri, kudalira pa kutetezera kwa dziko, Chithandizo, Chithandizo cha Chithandizo cha Chisungitso cha Chisungi, Chisungitso cha Chipulu, Chithandi cha Chipulu, Chiku

Komabe, Rehnquist Court inayamba kukhala ndi mphamvu yapadera ya zamalonda ya boma mu 1990. United States v. Lopez (195], Bwalo lamilandu linagonjetsa Gun-Free School Counts Act, kugamula kuti kukhala ndi mfuti pafupi ndi sukulu sikunayambukire kwenikweni malonda a mayiko. Zaka ziŵiri pambuyo pake, mu United States v. Morrison [2000], Khoti linawononga mbali ya chiwawa chotsutsana ndi Akazi, kusungidwa kwa chiwawa cha kugonana ndi chiŵalo sikuli ntchito ya zachuma. Zigamu zimenezi zinapanga ulemu watsopano kaamba ka ulamuliro.

Posachedwapa, lamulo la Affordal Care Act la munthu aliyense linachirikizidwa monga msonkho, osati pansi pa Commerce Claus . Mu National Federation of Independent Business v. Sebelius [1] (20: 2), Bwalo la Malamulo linagamula kuti Nyumba ya Malamulo silingakakamize anthu kuchita malonda pansi pa Commerce Claus, kuika malire ofunika pa ulamuliro wa boma.

Maulamuliro a Boma: Okhazikika ndi Otakata

Chikalata cha Tenth Amendment chosungidwa ku maboma onse amene sapatsidwa boma lolamulira. chiphunzitso chimenechi “chokhala ndi mphamvu zothandizira” chimapereka ulamuliro waukulu wa kukhazikitsa malamulo pankhani zokhudza anthu a m’dzikolo. Kaŵirikaŵiri mayiko amatchedwa“ makampani a democracy” chifukwa chakuti angayese malamulo amene angadzalandire m’dzikolo.

Mbali zazikulu za mphamvu ya boma zimaphatikizapo izi:

  • [[FLT: 0] Kuphunzitsa: United States kulamulira miyezo ya maphunziro, mapepala a mphunzitsi, ndalama zothandizira sukulu, ndi madongosolo a maphunziro apamwamba. Pamene kuli kwakuti boma limapereka ndalama kupyolera mwa Elementary and Secondary Education Act ndi kukakamiza malamulo a ufulu wachibadwidwe, maboma amapanga zosankha zambiri. Mwachitsanzo, maboma angatenge miyezo yawoyawo ya sayansi kapena amafuna maphunziro a zachuma.
  • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ndalama zoyendera. Ndalama za kampani imakhala ndi mikhalidwe, monga ngati kufuna kuti munthu amwa pang'ono zaka 21 kuti alandire ndalama za pamsewu.
  • Kusungitsa lamulo ndi chiweruzo chaupandu: Maboma ali ndi magulu awo a apolisi, makhoti, ndi ndende. Amalongosola upandu wochuluka (mphini, kuba, kuukira) ndi kupereka chilango. Boma limaweruza milandu ya boma yokha, monga ngati kuzembetsa mankhwala osokoneza bongo ku malire a boma, kuswa lamulo, ndi upandu pa katundu wa boma.
  • [[FLT: 0] Thanzi la polisi: Madziko amayang'anira zipatala, madokotala ndi manesi a laisensi, amakhazikitsa ziyeneretso za katemera kwa ana asukulu, ndi kulabadira kusoŵa kwathanzi kwa m'malo. Mliri wa Covid unagogomezera kupsinjika kwa boma ndi boma, monga momwe maboma anaperekera malamulo ndi zinyawu pamene boma linapereka chitsogozo ndi chuma.
  • Ukwati, banja, ndi maunansi a panyumba: m'dziko limapereka zilolezo za ukwati, kukhazikitsa chisudzulo ndi kulera ana, ndi kulamulira kulera ana. Komabe, Khoti Lalikulu mu Obergefell v. Hodges [1] (2015) analamula kuti maboma ayenera kuzindikira maukwati apakati pa 100, kukhazikitsa malamulo a boma amene anawaletsa.
  • Kusintha ndi pangano la lamulo: Maboma amalamulira malonda a malo, maunansi a mwini malo, zikalata, ndi mapangano. Malamulo ameneŵa amasiyana mokulira, kupanga malo alamulo ozungulira.
  • Zisankho: [[FLT :1] Madziko amapanga masankho, amakhazikitsa maola ovota, amakhazikitsa malo ofunsira, ndi kujambula malire a chigawo (kugonjera ku zifuno za boma monga Chikalata cha Ufulu wa Kusankha). Iwo anakhazikitsanso malamulo a ovota ndi njira zolembetsera, kaŵirikaŵiri kuyambitsa mkangano wa Revestation.
  • Kutumiza ntchito za m'makampani: laisensi ya dziko ya madokotala, maloya, aphunzitsi, olemba makampani a malo, ndi ntchito zina zambiri. Zimenezi zimapanga zopinga kugwirizanitsa dziko koma zimalola maboma kukhazikitsa miyezo yogwirizana ndi zosoŵa za kumaloko.
  • Lamulo la zachikhalidwe: Madziko angakhazikitse malamulo a malo okhala okhwima kwambiri kuposa boma la boma. Mwachitsanzo, California ili ndi miyezo yakeyake yotulutsa mpweya wa galimoto, yoperekedwa ndi wowononga pansi pa Deseat Air Act.

Maboma alinso ndi mphamvu za apolisi — mphamvu yotetezera thanzi, chisungiko, ubwino, ndi makhalidwe abwino a nzika zawo.

Apolisi ndi Chitetezo cha Anthu

Maboma apolisi amalola maulamuliro kulamulira machitachita osiyanasiyana. Mwachitsanzo, maboma angakhazikitse nyengo ya kumwa mwalamulo, kuletsa kusuta m’malo a anthu onse, kufuna zisoti za njinga yamoto, ndi kulamula kuti ana a sukulu (ogonjera ku kusaloledwa). Khoti Lapamwamba lachirikiza njira zoyenerera za apolisi, malinga ngati saswa ufulu wapamwamba kapena kukondera. M’nthaŵi ya ngozi zaumoyo, maboma angapatutse anthu, mabizinesi apafupi, kapena kuchepetsa misonkhano imene ingakhale yovuta kwa boma kuchita zinthu mwachindunji.

Mphamvu Zatsopano: Kuzenga Mlandu Kogaŵana

Maboma onse aŵiri a boma ndi a boma amagaŵana mphamvu zina, zotchedwa mphamvu zapanthaŵi imodzi. M’mbali zimenezi, mlingo uliwonse ungachite modziimira, koma lamulo la boma ndilo lalikulu pamene mikangano ibuka. Mphamvu zazikulu zapanthaŵiyo zimaphatikizapo:

  • Kusintha: Maboma onse aŵiri ndi boma la boma zingaletse msonkho wa ndalama zimene amapeza, misonkho ya malonda, ndi misonkho yogulitsa. Komabe, misonkho ya boma siingapereke mtolo mosayenera m'malonda a mayiko, ndipo boma silingakhome ntchito za boma.
  • Ndalama zofunkha: United States ikupereka ndalama zothandizira ntchito zazikulu monga sukulu ndi misewu yaikulu. Boma la boma limabwereka mamiliyoni zikwi zambiri pamsika waunansi.
  • Makhoti olengeza: United States amayang'anira madongosolo awo a khoti (milandu, apulomende, apamwamba). Judgeary asamalira milandu pansi pa lamulo la boma, ulamuliro wamitundu yosiyanasiyana, ndi mafunso alamulo. Nthaŵi zina makhoti a Federal ndi boma amagwirizana kupyolera mwa kuchotsa ndi habeas corpus.
  • Kukhazikitsa chisankho: Pamene maboma akupereka masankho, Congress amakhazikitsa nthaŵi, malo, ndi mtundu wa masankho a boma (mogonjera ku malamulo) ndipo angaumirize kuyenera kwa kuvota kupyolera mwa malamulo onga ngati Voting Rights Act.
  • Kusungitsa lamulo: Milingo yonse iŵiri iri ndi mabungwe osungitsa lamulo (FBI, DEA ya boma; apolisi a boma, apolisi a boma, a boma ku boma). Kaŵirikaŵiri amagwira ntchito pamodzi pa kuzembetsa mankhwala osokoneza bongo, intaneti, ndi milandu ya uchigaŵenga kudzera mwa magulu ankhondo.
  • Bank zopinga: Bank zingapangidwe pa mlingo wa boma kapena boma, koma lamulo la boma limachotsa malamulo a boma.

Maulamuliro a nthaŵi zonse amapanga malo oyanjanitsa amene angatsogolere ku kugwirizana kwatsopano kapena kutsata kogwiritsa mwala. Mwachitsanzo, bungwe la Comela Water Act la United States limakhazikitsa miyezo yochepera, koma maboma angaike malire aakulu pa zoipitsa.

Kulimbana Koipa Pakati pa Boma ndi Lamulo la Federal

Supremacke mu Mfundo VI ya Malamulo imalengeza kuti lamulo la boma ndilo “lamulo loposa la dzikolo.” Pamene lamulo la boma litsutsana mwachindunji ndi lamulo la boma lovomerezeka kapena Konsichushoni, lamulo la boma limakhalapo, ndipo lamulo la boma limatengedwa kukhala lopanda pake. Chiphunzitsochi, chodziŵika monga kumasulidwa, chingakhale chomvekera bwino (Chonfer imatchula cholinga chake cha kuchotsa) kapena chikanena kuti (chiganizo cha boma nchofala kwambiri kwakuti sichisiya malo a malamulo a boma).

Chipulumutso kaŵirikaŵiri chimabuka m'madera onga ngati kusamukira m'dziko, kumene makhoti aswa malamulo a boma oyesa kulanga kusamuka kosakhala kwa lamulo, kutchula ulamuliro wa boma. Mu Arizona v. United States (202]), Bwalo Lapamwamba linachotsa zigawo za SB 1070, zimene zikanachititsa milandu ya boma chifukwa cha kuswa lamulo ndi kufuna nduna kuti aone kuti asamukire. Khotilo linaona kuti kusungitsa anthu kusamuka ndi thayo la boma.

Chitsanzo china chotchuka ndicho kuloledwa mwalamulo. Pamene kuli kwakuti maboma ambiri agwiritsira ntchito mankhwala kapena zosangulutsa mwalamulo, chamba chimakhalabe Shedyuli yanga pansi pa lamulo la boma. Department Justice yakana kaŵirikaŵiri kuweruza machitidwe a boma pansi pa Cole Motherrandum (imene inachotsedwa mu 2018), koma mkangano wa lamulo ukupitirizabe. Bank amasamala za kugulitsa chida cha m'makampani chifukwa cha malamulo a boma ophera ndalama.

Chisamaliro cha zaumoyo chimapereka chitsanzo china. Affordble Care Act inali ndi lamulo limene limanena kuti kuwonjezera Medicaid kapena kutaya ndalama zimene zilipo m'boma. M' National Federation of Independent Business v. Sebelius [1], khoti linagamula kuti boma silingaopseze kuletsa ndalama zimene zilipo m'Madedica kuti ziwapikire ku malire a mphamvu yowononga ndalama. Komabe, Khotilo linalola kuti liwonjezere ndi ndalama zatsopano, ndipo maboma ambiri pomalizira pake linazivomereza.

Milandu Yaikulu ya Khoti Lalikulu Itsutsa Federalism

Milandu ingapo yochititsa chidwi yaumba kulinganizika kwa mphamvu pakati pa nthambi za boma ndi za boma:

McCulloch v. Maryland (1819)

Pa mlandu wa maziko umenewu, Khoti Lalikulu linachirikiza mphamvu ya Congress yopanga banki ya dziko pansi pa Manedi ndi Seact Claus ndipo linaletsa kuyesayesa kwa Maryland kukhoma msonkho ku banki. Woweruza Wamkulu John Marshall analemba kuti “mphamvu ya kukhoma msonkho imaloŵetsa mphamvu ya kuwononga,” ndipo zimenezo sizingaletse ntchito zalamulo. Mlanduwo unakhazikitsa malamulo aŵiri: kumasulira kofala kwa mphamvu za boma ndi kusungidwa kwa ziŵiya za boma pa msonkho wa boma.

Gibbons v. Ogden (1824)

Mlanduwu unafotokoza za Commerce Claus kwa nthawi yoyamba, khotilo linagamula kuti ku New York, kupatsa boma lokhala ndi boti lokhala ndi sitima yamphamvu kutsutsana ndi laisensi ya boma, ndiponso kuti mphamvu ya Congress yolamulira malonda a mayiko onse ndi yosaloleka ndipo imakhala yosasiyana ndi anthu onse oyendetsa ndege.

Wickard . Filburn (1942)

Roscoe Filburn analima tirigu pa famu yake ya Ohio, makamaka kaamba ka kudyetsedwa, magawo a boma okulira pansi pa Agricultural Sunt Act . Khoti linachirikiza chilango cha boma, likugamula kuti ngakhale tirigu wakumeneko womakula angayambukire kuchuluka ndi kufunidwa kwa maiko ena. Chigamulo chimenechi chinakulitsa kwambiri mphamvu ya boma ya zamalonda ndipo chinakhala ndi ulamuliro kwa zaka makumi ambiri.

United States v. Lopez (1995)

Alfonso Lopez anaimbidwa mlandu wa kunyamula mfuti m'sukulu pansi pa lamulo la boma la Gun-Free School Zones Act. Khoti Lapamwamba linasintha chigamulo, likumasunga kuti kukhala ndi mfuti pafupi ndi sukulu sikuli ntchito ya zachuma ndipo sikumakhudza kwenikweni malonda a mayiko ena. Imeneyi inali nthaŵi yoyamba m'zaka makumi asanu ndi limodzi Khoti linamenya lamulo la boma la kupambana Classia.

Morrison (2000) ndi dziko la United States, koma kenako Morrison

Khotilo linaletsa makonzedwe a chiwawa cha kutsutsana ndi akazi, likugamula kuti chiwawa chosonkhezera amuna ndi akazi sichili chachuma ndipo sichimayambukira kwenikweni malonda a mayiko. Mlanduwo unatsenderezanso malonda a malonda a malonda a m'mayiko osiyanasiyana.

National Federation of Independent Business v. Sebelius (202)

Chigamulo chimenechi chinachirikiza lamulo la munthu aliyense la kuyang'anira monga msonkho koma chinathetsa kufutukuka kwa Medicaid monga chogwirizana. Khotilo linavomerezanso kuti Commerce Claus siimalola Congress kulamula anthu kugula inshuwalansi ya zaumoyo, chifukwa chakuti kulephera kuchitapo kanthu sikuli kutenga mbali m'zamalonda. Mlandu umenewu uli chizindikiro cha madzi apamwamba amakono kaamba ka malire pa mphamvu ya boma.

Mavuto ndi Kutsutsana kwa Masiku Ano

Lerolino, mkangano pakati pa boma ndi mphamvu ya boma wa malamulo ukuchitika m’malo ambiri apamwamba:

  • Lamulo la zachikhalidwe: zoyesayesa za California zokhazikitsa miyezo yoposera ya galimoto yolimba zafikiridwa ndi zoyesayesa za boma za kuchotsa kuwonongeka kwake. Nkhondoyo imasonyeza mmene maboma angapitirizira kutsogolo pa malamulo a nyengo pamene boma la boma likhala lofooka.
  • Useri wachinsinsi: [1] The California Consumer Activity Act (CPA) ndi limodzi la malamulo a boma okhwima kwambiri. Pali mkangano wopitirizabe wonena ngati muyezo umodzi wa boma uli wofunika kuti upeŵe ntchito yoika malamulo a boma.
  • Kulamulira kwa . Maboma apereka malamulo osiyanasiyana(kuchokera ku maloleza-to-kumwa kuti “isunge. [1] Nyumba za Malamulo kaŵirikaŵiri zimalephera kuchitapo kanthu, kutsogolera ku kutsutsana kwakukulu m'malamulo. Chigamulo cha Khoti Lalikulu mu New York State Rifle & Pistol Association v. Bruen [2022]) mphamvu yoletsa kunyamula zinthu zobisika, koma tsatanetsatane wochuluka akutsutsidwabe.
  • Kuthetsa: [[FLT :1] Atamaliza [[FLT:] Dobbs v. Jackson Women’s Health Organization [Kusamalira akazi:3] (2022) anagubuduza Roe v. Wade, maboma anapeza mphamvu yolamulira kuchotsa mimba. Maboma ena akhazikitsa pafupifupi madeksitiki a ziletso pamene ena anakhazikitsa malamulo otetezera. Zimenezi zapangitsa malo osweka ndi kudzutsa mafunso onena za ulendo ndi kuchotsa mimba kwa chigawo chakunja.
  • [[FLT: 0] Kusuntha: Madziko onga Texas ndi Florida ayesa kusungitsa malamulo a kusamuka, kutsogolera ku milandu ndi kuloŵererapo kwa Khoti Lapamwamba. Boma la boma limakhala ndi ulamuliro waukulu, koma maboma angagwirizane kapena kutsutsa.
  • Kuphunzitsa ndi maphunziro: Nyumba za malamulo za boma zakhala malo otsutsana pa kuphunzitsa chiphunzitso chosuliza cha fuko, kudziŵika kwa mwamuna, ndi mbiri ya America. Izi zimasonyeza mphamvu ya maboma ya kuika miyezo ya madeti ndi malire a ulamuliro wa boma pansi pa Demendment Yachisanu.

Mikangano yamakono imeneyi imasonyeza kuti uyang’aniro uli dongosolo lamoyo, logwira ntchito.

Kumaliza

Kugawa kwa mphamvu ya boma pakati pa maboma a boma ndi a boma kukukhalabe mbali yolongosola ulamuliro wa Amereka. Kugawidwa mosamalitsa kwa maulamuliro a boma, mphamvu za boma zosungidwa, ndi maulamuliro a panthaŵi imodzi kumayambitsa mipata iŵiri ya kukonza ndi kuyambitsa mikangano. Kuchokera ku New Deal ya mphamvu ya zamalonda ya boma ku kuwonjezera zigamulo zaposachedwapa za chipani cha Supreme Court, kulinga kulinganizika kwa ulamuliro wa boma. Kumvetsetsa kulinganiza kumeneku kuli kofunika kwa ophunzira, opanga malamulo, ndi nzika zimene zimafuna kugwirizana ndi dongosolo la malamulo. Pamene mavuto atsopano akuyambika ndi kuyambika kwa nzeru ya zaumoyo waponse. Kukambitsirana pakati pa zigamu za boma ndi opanga malamulo a boma kupitirizabe kulinganiza zoyenera ndi mathayo a ku America onse.