Mfundo Yosatha: Zimene Zimachitika ku America

Lingaliro la njira yoyenerera limakhala maziko a dongosolo la malamulo a ku America, lonjezo la lamulo lakuti boma silingamane munthu aliyense moyo, ufulu, kapena katundu. Lilinso ndi phindu lowonjezereka lomwe limasonyeza mtundu wa Appsquo; kuchotsapo kumvetsetsa kwa chilungamo, chilungamo, ndi unansi pakati pa munthu ndi boma. Ulendo woyenerera wa m'zaka zapakati wa chitsimikizo cha ku chiphunzitso cha malamulo amphamvu uli njira yamphamvu imene imasonyezera kuyang'ana mbiri yakale ya ku America yeniyeniyo. Chisinthiko chimasonyeza mmene malamulo alamulo amasinthira ku kusintha kwa kakhalidwe kakhalidwe ka anthu, kusokoneza kwa zopangapangapanga, ndi kumvetsetsa kwatsopano kwa ulemu wa munthu. Lamulo limeneli, limene limatsimikizira kuti malamulowo akugwiritsidwa ntchito mofanana ndi anthu onse ndi kuti ali ndi mwayi wakukhala ndi mphamvu ya kulongosola mbiri yabwino, kufalikira kwa mbiri yamakono ya chilungamo.

Maziko a Mbiri Yakale: Kuchokera ku Magna Carta Kufika ku Matchati a Atsamunda

Chiyambi cha ntchito yapamwamba ndi yalamulo ya kumbuyo kwa kumangidwa, kapena kulandidwa ufulu wake kupyola Atlantic m'mabwalo a Runnymede mu 1215. Pamene kuli kwakuti Magna Carta sanagwiritsire ntchito mawu enieni "kuyambira ntchito ya lamulo," mutu wake wokondwerera 39 unakhala ndi lingaliro lakuti palibe munthu waufulu amene angagwire, kumangidwa, kapena kulandidwa ufulu wake "kusiyapo mwa chiweruzo chalamulo cha ausinkhu wake kapena ndi lamulo la dziko. Mawuwa, "lamulo la dziko," anali kutsogolera pa zimene zikatchedwa "kuyambika."

Mazana angapo pambuyo pake, oweruza Achingelezi onga Sir Edward Coke mu Instituties of the Laws of England [1628] anayerekezera molunjika "lamulo la dziko" ndi "kuyambika kwa lamulo," akumanena kuti linatsimikizira muyezo wina wa njira yachiweruzo. Malingaliro ameneŵa anadutsa Atlantic ndi atsamunda ndi atsamunda ndipo anaikidwa m'malamulo oyambirira a a a a atsamunda. Massachusetts of Liberations (1641), mwachitsanzo, anali ndi makonzedwe otetezera anthu ku chilango chopanda lamulo ndi kutsimikizira ziyeso zolungama, kusonyeza mizukulu ya mwambo walamulo umenewu mu Chimereka cha Amereka. Zomwe za kutchuka zolamulira kodzilamulira kodzilamulira pansi pa ulamuliro wa Britain mkati mwa ulamuliro wa dziko la Britain zinalimbikitsa chikhulupiriro cha lamulo la anthu oyendetsa ntchito.

Malamulo: Malamulo Owonjezera Achisanu ndi 14

Opanga malamulo a United States, otsatiridwa ndi mwambo wa malamulo wamba, anamvetsa kufunika kwa ntchito yoyenerera. Komabe, Konsichushoni yoyambirira sinali ndi lamulo loyenerera. Imeneyi inakhala ndi Bill of Rights . Commergate , yovomerezedwa mu 1791, imaphatikizapo lamulo lakuti palibe munthu aliyense amene adzalandidwa moyo, ufulu, kapena katundu, popanda kuyendetsedwa mwalamulo. Imeneyi inali kudziŵika poyambirira kuti imagwira ntchito pa zochita za boma, chitsimikizo chakuti khoti ndi akuluakulu a boma atsatira malamulo a boma akhazikitsa malamulo akwaniza munthu asanalange nzika.

Nthaŵi yosintha ya kachitidwe ka lamulo mu America inadza ndi kuwonjezera kwa ntchito ya 144th Amendment mu 1868, imodzi ya maboma atatu okonzanso. Chigawo 1 cha kukonza chilengezo chilengeze kuti palibe boma limene lidza "kuchotsa munthu aliyense wa moyo, ufulu, kapena chuma, popanda njira yoyenerera ya lamulo. Kufutukulidwa kosavuta kumeneku kwa njira yotsimikizira [[FLT:] maboma [[FLT: 1] kusandutsa dongosolo la boma la America. Ilo linapanga chida champhamvu kwa anthu kuti ayesetse machitidwe awo m’khoti a boma m'boma ndi kuika maziko a kugwiritsidwa ntchito kwakukulu kwa ufulu wa boma ku maboma, chiphunzitso chalamulo chodziŵika monga [FLD:] coptiontiontion [FFF:3].

Dziko Loyambirira: Kuteteza Malo Potsatira Malo

M’zaka za zana loyamba la Republic, tanthauzo la kachitidwe ka zinthu linali lochepa ndi losumikidwa kwambiri pa zoyenera za katundu ndi kukhazikika kwa malamulo. Kuzindikira kofala kwa lamulo kunali kwakuti njira yoyenerera inafuna boma kutsatira njira zokhazikitsidwa za lamulo — kumvetsera koyenera, chidziŵitso choyenera, ndi kumamatira ku lamulo la malamulo la— asanatenge munthu ’ katundu. Makhoti anali odera nkhaŵa kwenikweni ndi kutsimikizira kuti dzikolo lili lotere, kusonkhetsa ngongole, ndi kuŵerengera msonkho kunachitidwa mogwirizana ndi lamulo la lamulo.

Nthaŵi imeneyi inayamba kugwiritsa ntchito khoti Lapamwambalo kufotokoza mayeso a "kulolera ndi "kuyenerera" . M'nkhani yotchuka Dired Scott v. Sandford mlandu (1857], Bwalo Lamilandu la Supreme linagwiritsa ntchito modabwitsa njira yochititsa kugamula kuti agonjetse Missouri ololera, kuchititsa kuti boma lisamaletse kapolo katundu wake — munthu wogwidwa ukapolo — kuletsa ukapolo m'magawo a boma. Pamene kuli kwakuti likhale loipidwa ndi kupanduka, lamulo loyenera: mphamvu ya kuchepetsa lamulo, lingaliro limene lingabweze ndi kubwezera chilango.

Kugaŵa Motsatira Masamu

Kusinthika kwalamulo kwa njira yoyenerera kwadziŵika ndi kupangidwa kwa nthambi ziŵiri zosiyana, koma zogwirizana: njira yoyenerera yochitira zinthu ndi yoyenerera.

Mmene Zinthu Zimayendera

Limeneli ndilo tanthauzo loyamba, la maziko la ntchito yofunikira. Limakhudza mmene ya ntchito ya boma. Kodi ndi njira zachindunji ziti zimene boma liyenera kutsatira lisanachotse moyo wa munthu, ufulu, kapena katundu? Chiyeneretso chachikulu ncholungama. Izi zimaphatikizapo:

  • Thukulo: 0 : Munthu ayenera kudziŵitsidwa za kachitidwe ka boma kamene kakuyandikira.
  • Kumva: Munthu ayenera kukhala ndi mwaŵi wa kupereka mbali yawo ya nkhaniyo pamaso pa wopanga chosankha wopanda tsankho.
  • [[ML:0] Kuyenera Uphungu: M'milandu yowopsa, kuimira loya.
  • Kupitira kutsogolo: Kukhoza kudutsa mboni za axitamini.

Nkhani yochititsa chidwi ya Mathews v. Eldiridge [1] adakhazikitsa kuyesa kwachikatikati kuti aone njira zimene zikufunika. Makhoti amayesa zinthu zitatu: (1) chikondwerero chaumwini choyambukiridwa, (2) upandu wa kuphophonya pansi pa njira zamakono ndi phindu la chitetezo chowonjezereka, ndi (3) chiwongola dzanja cha boma, kuphatikizapo katundu wa masamu ndi maulamuliro amene angapereke. Mkhalidwe wosinthika umenewu umapangitsa makhoti kulinganiza zofunika ku malingana ndi mawu oyenera, kuchokera ku mayeso a boma kaamba ka mayeso aakulu a milandu ya kopalamula.

Mmene Zinthu Zimayendera

Imeneyi ndi nthambi yamakono ya maphunziro oyenera. Imadetsa nkhaŵa zimene boma limachita. Njira yoikidwiratu imafunsa ngati boma lili ndi chifukwa choyenerera chomanitsira munthu moyo, ufulu, kapena katundu, popanda malamulo ogwiritsidwa ntchito. Ilo limatsimikizira kuti ufulu wina waukulu wachokera kwambiri m'dziko la ’ mbiri ndi mwambo wakuti boma silingawatsutse, ngakhale ndi kumvetsera kwabwino.

Lingalirolo linatulukira mu nyengo , pamene Khoti Lalikulu linagwiritsira ntchito kuswa malamulo a zachuma, monga malamulo oika maola ogwira ntchito, pamaziko amene anaswa "pangano la pangano". Nyengo imeneyi imadziŵika monga nthaŵi [[FLT:] ya , pamene Khoti Lalikulu linaigwiritsa ntchito kuswa malamulo a zachuma, monga ngati malamulo oika maola ambiri ogwira ntchito, pamaziko amene anaswa "pangano la pangano." Nyengo imeneyi, yodziŵika monga [[FLT:] Lachner [[FLD:5]], imasuliridwa kwambiri chifukwa cha Khoti lochotsa nzeru zake zachuma. Pambuyo pa vuto la ufulu wa bungwe la Couragetian, Khoti lachiŵiri lalingment, lopasunthaneti lokhalanso m’dziko lachuma.

Kuvomereza: Kugwiritsira Ntchito Chikalata cha Ufulu Wachibadwidwe ku United States

Buku lovuta kwambiri m'chisinthiko cha njira yoyenerera ndilo chiphunzitso cha kuloŵetsedwamo. Bill of Rights, monga momwe inalembedwera poyamba, inagwira ntchito kokha ku boma la boma. Zimenezi zinatanthauza kuti boma lingaswe ufulu wonga wa kulankhula mwaufulu kapena kuyenera kwa mlandu wa ajuli popanda kuvomereza lamulo. Mlanduwu unachititsa galimoto kusintha zimenezi.

Khoti Lapamwamba silinagwiritsire ntchito mwamsanga Bill of Rights ku maboma. Mmalomwake, linapitiriza kuzungulira zaka za zana la 20 kupyolera m'njira yotchedwa "kusankha" Khoti linafunsa ngati kuyenera kwapadera kuli "kuchirikiza kakonzedwe ka ku Amereka ka chiweruzo" kapena "kuchirikiza lingaliro la ufulu wolamulidwa" Justice Benjamin Cardozo motchuka analongosola mayeso ngati kuti kuyenera kwa "kuyenerera kwenikweni kwa kalingaliridwe ka ufulu wolamulidwa""".

Nkhani zazikulu m’zochitika zimenezi zimaphatikizapo:

  • Gitlow v. New York (1925): Anagwiritsa ntchito Free Spee Spee Claus ya Coptment ku maboma.
  • Nearb v. Minnesota[FL:1] (131): Anafufuza Free Press Claus.
  • Cantwell v. Connecticut [FL:1] (1940): Anagwiritsa ntchito Free Execlerosie Claus.
  • Everson v. Board of Education (1947): Anagwiritsa ntchito Kuikidwa kwa Claus.
  • Mapp v. Ohio [1] (1961): Kugwiritsira ntchito Lamulo Lachinayi lotetezera ku kufunafuna kosayenera ndi khunyu ndi lamulo lopatula.
  • Gideon v. Wainwright [1] (1963): Anagwiritsa ntchito Chikalata cha Sikisi Owonjezera popereka uphungu.
  • Miranda v. Arizona[FL:1] (1966): Anagwiritsa ntchito mwaŵi wa Kusintha kwa Gawo Loyamba pa Kudzitsutsa.
  • [[FULT:0] Dincan v. Louisiana (1968): Anatumiza Lamulo la Chisanu ndi chimodzi la ku mlandu wa oweruza.

Zimenezi zachititsa kuti malamulo oteteza ufulu wachibadwidwe a m’dzikolo akhale ngati malo a boma lokhala ndi ufulu wochita zinthu zosiyanasiyana, ndipo boma lonse la United States lizigwirizana nazo.

Milandu Yaikulu ya Khoti

Zigamulo zingapo za khoti Lalikulu zakhala zochititsa chidwi pa nkhani ya chisinthiko, zimene zachititsa kuti anthu a m’mibadwo yambiri ayambe kugwiritsa ntchito mfundo zimenezi.

Zimene Zinachitika M’zaka za m’ma 1900: Ufulu wa Anthu Onse Ndiponso Zoposa

Zaka za zana la 20, makamaka kuyambira m'ma 1950 mpaka m'ma 1970, zinakhala ndi kuwonjezeka kwakukulu kwa ufulu wochita zinthu. Bungwe la Civil Rights Movement linayang'anizana mwachindunji ndi kulephera kwa dongosolo lalamulo kupereka chiweruzo chofanana kwa Black America. Khoti Lapamwamba, pansi pa Chilungamo Chachikulu Earl Warren, linapereka mpambo wa zigamulo zimene zinasintha njira yaupandu ya Amereka ndi zoyenera zaumwini.

  • Khotilo linapereka chitetezo choyenerera ku dongosolo la chiweruzo cha milandu , kutsimikizira kuti chilungamo chikhale kuyambira panthaŵi ya kumangidwa ku mlandu ndi kuchonderera.
  • Milandu yonga Brown v. Board of Education (1954), pamene inali yogamulidwa pansi pa Chitetezo Cholingana Claus, inasonyezedwa ndi nkhaŵa yofanana ya chilungamo chachikulu chimene chimayambitsa njira yoyenera.
  • Khoti linayamba kugwiritsa ntchito zofunika zofunikira ku za ntchito za boma, zofunikira kuweruzidwa mwachilungamo zisanapindule monga ubwino wa zachuma, chitetezo cha anthu, ndi ndalama zolipirira zopunduka.
  • Mu Loveng v. Virginia (1967), Bwalo lamilandu linaswa malamulo oletsa ukwati wa mafuko, kukhazikitsa chigamulo chake ponse paŵiri ku ezachitetezo ndi Claus Century Clauss, kuzindikira ufulu wa kukwatira monga kuyenera kwapadera.

Nyengo imeneyi inathandiza anthu kumvetsa kuti malamulo amene afunika kuwatsatira si okhazikika koma kuti azikhala olungama.

Matanthauzo Amakono: Zinthu Zachinsinsi, Zaluso, ndi Zatsopano

M'zaka makumi aposachedwapa, chisinthiko cha njira yofunikira chasinthidwa kwambiri ndi kusintha kwa luso lamakono ndi zinthu zatsopano za kakhalidwe. Mbali yofunika kwambiri ya chitukuko yakhala kudutsana kwa njira yofunikira ndi [[FLT: 0] zoyenera za kusinthika.

Malamulo ofunikira ofunikira a m'malamulo ophatikizapo banja ndi ufulu wa kubala, khotilo lalimbana ndi mmene Lachinayi Demendment ’ chitetezo cha kufunafuna kosayenera ndi kugwidwa ndi njirinjiri, zogwiritsiridwa ntchito ku maboma kupyolera m'zochitika zoyenerera, zimagwira ntchito ku makompyuta. . California [Makhoti Apamwamba] [Malamulo] [Mbiri, anagwirizana ndi mfundo yakuti apolisi afunikira chilo chofufuzira foni ya foni imene atsekera panthaŵi ya kumangidwa. Khoti linazindikira kuti mafoni amakono ali ndi chidziŵitso chachikulu chaumwini, kupanga chilo chosafunikira kufunafuna chinthu chachinsinsi chakuthupi chofanana ndi chikwama. Nkhaniyi imachitira chithunzi mmene malamulo akale a kachitidwe ka zinthu katsopano.

Mavuto ena amakono ndi awa:

  • Kusintha: kutsutsana kowopsa ponena za ukulu wa kuyenera kwa ntchito kwa anthu osakhala a m'dziko amene akuyang'anizana ndi kuthamangitsidwa, makamaka ponena za kupezeka kwa kuimira kwalamulo ndi kugwiritsira ntchito njira zochotsera. Khoti Lapamwamba lanena kuti njira zoyenerera zimagwira ntchito m'zochitika za kusamuka koma silinatsimikizire kuyenera kwa uphungu woikidwa.
  • Chisungiko cha Dziko ndi Surveillance: Nkhaŵa za Post zabutsa kusagwirizana pakati pa chisungiko ndi ufulu. Programu monga kugwiritsa ntchito foni kosafunikira ndi kumangidwa kwa adani zadzutsa mafunso aakulu ofunikira ponena za ukulu wa ulamuliro ndi zoyenera za anthu osankhidwa kukhala ziwopsezo.
  • Sacial Media ndi Public Forums : Pamene akuluakulu a boma akugwiritsira ntchito kwambiri makompyuta, mafunso amabuka ponena za kaya nzika ziri ndi njira yoyenerera ya kulowa m'malo a manambala ameneŵa ndi kaya kutsekereza ogwiritsira ntchito kumakhala kusoŵa kwa ufulu kwa mawu.

Mavuto Amene Adzabwere

Ngakhale kuti malamulo a boma ali amphamvu, lonjezo la kuchitika kwa zinthu likuvuta kwambiri ku America wa zaka za 21.

Mtsogolo mwa Zinthu Zovuta Kuzipeza

Kuyang’ana kutsogolo, chisinthiko cha dongosolo la zinthu sichidzatherapo. Chitokoso chachikulu chidzapitirizabe kulinganiza zoyenera za munthu ndi zofunikira za chisungiko, kuyendetsa zinthu, ndi kachitidwe ka gulu. Mbali zazikulu zingapo zidzaumba mutu wotsatira wa nkhani ya lamulo imeneyi.

  • Chiweruzo choyenera ndi AI: Pamene mabungwe a boma akugwiritsira ntchito kwambiri maalamu ndi nzeru zopeka posankha zoweruza, kuchotsa chilango, kudyerera ana, ndi kupindula, mafunso atsopano amabuka ponena za njira yoyenerera. Kodi chiaromatiki chingapendedwe? Kodi "kulingalira" kungapendedwe kaamba ka kupendedwa? Kuyesa kuwonekera kwa kuwonekera ndi mwaŵi watanthauzo wa kutsutsa zosankha za kulinganiza kudzakhala kutsendereza njira yoyenerera ya zaka za zana la 21.
  • Mawu achinsinsi monga Chifuniro chaufulu: Lingaliro la "kuyenera" m'nyengo ya manambala likusintha. Anthu amapanga unyinji wa chidziŵitso chaumwini. Kodi njira yoyenerera imatetezera ’ kufunitsitsa kwa chidziŵitso chawo? Makhoti amtsogolo angafotokoze zatsopano "kuthandiza kuyang'anira chidziŵitso chaumwini, kulinganiza zopereka ndi kugwiritsira ntchito boma.
  • Chiweruzo cha kampani ndi Nyumba: Vuto la nyumba ndi kusalingana kwa chuma kukusonkhezera ntchito kutsogolo. Kuyenera kwa kupereka uphungu m'zochitika za kuchotsa ndizo njira yomakulakula, yozikidwa pa mfundo yakuti kuwonongeka kwakukulu kwa nyumba kumafuna chitetezo chofanana ndi cha anthu aupandu. Mofananamo, kumvetsera koyenera m’kusonkhetsa ngongole ndi ngongole za ophunzira kuli mbali zothekera za kuwonjezereka.
  • Kusintha Chiweruzo Cholungama: Pali kugwirizana kwakukulu pa kufunika kwa kusintha. Mtsogolo mwachidziŵikire mudzawona zoyesayesa zopitirizabe kuchepetsa kumangidwa kwa anthu, ma bhayile, kuwonjezera ndalama zothandizira anthu kutetezera, ndi kuwonjezera mlandu wa apolisi. Masinthidwe onsewa, pa maziko ake, kulimbitsa ndi kubwezeretsa lonjezo la kachitidwe koyenera.

Chisinthiko cha njira yoyenerera m'malamulo a America ndi chitaganya chimasonyeza mphamvu yokhalitsa ya lingaliro lakuti boma silili lamphamvu zonse. Mfundo yakuti munthu aliyense, mosasamala kanthu za malo, ali ndi ufulu wochitira zinthu mwachilungamo pansi pa lamulo ndilo linzake la demokrase ya Amereka. Pamene kuli kwakuti kumasulira kwa lamulolo kwasintha ndi kufutukulidwa kwa zaka mazana ambiri, chifuno chake chachikulu chimakhala chimodzimodzi: kutetezera ’ zikondwerero zazikulu kwambiri kuchokera ku ulamuliro wa boma wongofuna. Pamene chitaganya chikupitirizabe kusintha, kukambitsirana kopitirizabe kwa tanthauzo la lamulo lalamulo la dziko la ’ kufunafuna kwake kaamba ka umodzi wowonjezereka wangwiro ndi wolungama.