Choloŵa Chokhalitsa cha Lamulo la Chisanu ndi Chimodzi: Kulimbana ndi Mavuto M’zaka Za mazana Ambiri

Kuyenera kwa kuyang'anizana ndi oimba mlandu sikunayambike posachedwapa; ndimwala wa Anglo-America umene unayamba [FLT: 0] Sumplified yoyambirira ikokha. Mawu omveka ngati osavuta ayambitsa zaka mazana ambiri za kupeka, maphunziro, ndi kufotokoza zochitika. Kuyambira kuyambika kwa nyengo &squo; nkhondo yolimbana ndi chinsinsi cha masiku ano ku &quelquo; kuyang'anizana ndi mboni zotsutsa iye. ” mawu ameneŵa akuoneka ngati achititsa umboni wa zaka mazana ambiri, ukatswiri, ndi wotsutsa milandu. Kuchokera ku nyengo zoyambitsa milandu ya ’ nkhondo yolimbana ndi chinsinsi m'malemba lamakono la kutsogolo la vidiyo, ndi kutsimikizira kwa mboni za kutsogolo kwa chiganinkhope cha ku America.

Magwero a Kutsutsana kwa Claus: Kuchokera ku Zilango Zankhanza za Angelezi Kufikira ku Mlanduwo

Maziko a mbiri yakale a Bhanisica Claus agona pa kupondereza malamulo a ku England kumene anthu a ku America anakumana nako. M’zaka za zana la 16 ndi 17, makhoti a ku England analola kuti agwiritse ntchito hex akugawana affidavits [1] ndi mawu a mphekesera otsutsa oimbidwa mlandu, ndipo nthaŵi zambiri popanda mpata uliwonse wa oimbidwa mlanduwo kuti aphe mboni. Kuzengedwa koipitsitsa kwa Sir Walter Raleigh mu 1603, kumene anaimbidwa mlandu wolembedwa wa kuvomereza kopeka kwa co-pispirass , amene sanaonekepo m’khoti, anakhala wosonkhezera anthu okonzanso zinthu. Oweruza malamulowo anapezeka m'mbiriyi, ndi Classio Clasme adakonzedwa kuti apeŵedwe kubwereranso kwa anthu a &rdeto; &doo;

Pa nthawi imene ankalemba buku la ufulu, James Madison anazindikira kuti woimbidwa mlandu wotchedwa ’ luso la kuyang'anizana ndi omimba mlandu wake linakwaniritsa zifuno zambiri: linatsimikizira kudalirika kwa umboni mwa kuuika pamtengo wopimira, linakakamiza mboni kupereka umboni pansi pa chiwopsezo cha kuopsa, ndipo linalola oweruza kuyang'anira umboniwo mwaumwini. Kumvetsetsa koyamba kunazikidwa pa “ lamulo lofala lofuna umboni wachikhalire, ” monga momwe Khoti Lapamwamba linanenera pambuyo pake. Nkhani ya m'mbiri iyi njosuliza: Claus sanakhale wokongola koma wotetezedwa ndi boma.

Mafotokozedwe Oyambirira a Chiweruzo: Zaka za Kukonza (1791-1965)

Kwa zaka zoposa zana limodzi pambuyo pa kuvomerezedwa, Booka la Claus linalandira chisamaliro cha Bwalo Lapamwamba lochepa. Court’ zigamulo zoyambirira zinagwiritsira ntchito kwambiri kulimba, kuyang'ana kumaso, kutsogolo. Matox v. United States [FLT] [[FLT:] [1855] [] [1855]), Khoti linakhulupirira kuti kuyenera kutsutsana sikungachotsedwe ndi kupeputsana, komanso linazindikira kuti Clause sanali wokwanira. Khoti linanena, “ Chifunsi ya chigamu chachikulu cha [Cultlascless , chokhulupirika chokwanira, chimene chigamuyenetsepo kapena mbali yake yosa ya kanthaŵi ya kugwiritsidwa ntchito kwa andende, ndi kupenda kopeto; Chigamu chachikulu cha mlandu chokhulupirika choyambirira, Chigamuweruzo chokhulupirika chokwanira, Chiganizo cha Aston.

Makhoti aang’ono analimbana ndi kusagwirizana kwa Claus ndi kuchuluka kwa anthu osamvana. Njira yachisawawa inali yolingalira zoyenera zolimbana kukhala zokhutiritsidwa ngati umboni utakhala mkati mwa mphekesera yochokera pansi pa mtima, ” chiyeso chimene pambuyo pake chikayengedwa ndi kuipitsidwa.

Waterof: Copper v. Texas (1965) ndi Kulekana

Pomwepo, Khoti Lapamwamba linasintha . Poltin v. Texas [FLT :2] [FLT ] (65]). Pankhani imeneyo, Khoti Lapamwamba linavomereza kuti Kuletsa kwa Sixth Conformation ’ Kulimbana kwa Claus adachitidwa kukhala kogwirizana ndi maulamuliro [[FLT: 4.] Fitrententh Confect [[FLT] Fitenth] &ctsquo;s Proces Claus Clausquo; . chiphunzitso chimenechi chinatanthauza kuti kutsutsa kwa apandu tsopano kunali koyenerera ku zitetezero zofananazo monga osungidwa a boma. Khotilo linagogomezera la kuyang'anizana ndi kuyang'ana kwa nkhope ” ndi kugalamuliridwa kwa woyenerera kwa woweruza wamkulu wa Whird, kutsimikizira kuti avomereze umboni wawo woyenerera.

The Modern Framework: Kuchokera ku Ohio kuphatikizanso Roberts kufika ku Crawford v. Washington

Kwa zaka makumi ambiri pambuyo pa Chikhoterero, muyezo wolamulira kusanthula mawu anakhazikitsidwa mu Ohio v. Roberts [1] (1980]]. Pansi pa Roberts, umboni wa mabodza unali wodabwitsa ngati unagwera pakati pa “ wochokera kwambiri m'makutu wosiyana ndi ” kapena wina anajambula za kudalirika kwa kukhulupirika. ” Kuyesa kodalirika kumeneku kunapereka oweruza nzeru yaikulu ndi zotsatira zosagwirizana. Otsutsawo anatsutsa kuti Robert apange mayeso popanda mpata uliwonse woyesera umboni wokhudza mtandawo.

Crawford v. Washington (2004): Kusintha kwa zinthu

Mu . Mlandu wokhudza Michael Crawford v. Washington [1] [FLT :2], Khoti Lapamwamba linakonza malo a Roberts ndi kubwezeretsa mafotokozedwe oyambirira a Makedzana a Claus . Mlandu wokhudza Michael Crawford, amene anaimbidwa mlandu wa kuukira ndi kuyesa kupha. Mlandu wake, kuweruzako kunaimba mawu a mkazi wake, Sylvia, amene anapatsidwa apolisi panthaŵi ya kufunsa. Chifukwa cha Washington &squo; mwaŵi wa ukwati, Sylvia sanapereke umboni, koma boma linayambitsa mawu ake otsutsa chifukwa cha kuyang’anizana ndi chilango. Makhotiwo anatulukira mawu odalirika pa mlanduwo. Oweruzawo adavomereza kuti, Supreme anasintha mlanduwo. A Clauk adavomereza mlanduwo, chifukwa cha kuyang'anizana ndi kutsutsa mlanduwo, koma sanaonekere. Koma adaonekera pa nthaŵi inaonekera pa mlanduwo.

Wolemba nkhani za anthu ambiri, Jasitisi Scalia anakana kuyesedwa kwa Roberts, akumanena kuti “ Clausquo; chinthu chachikulu ndicho mbiri yabwino, ” ndi kuti kudalirika ndiko ku &lquo; kudalirika, ngati sikunali konse, lingaliro. Chizindikiro cha Crawford chinafuna kuti makhoti asungepo kuti aone ngati mawuwo anali “ tispecion ” m'chilengedwe. Ngati chinali, njira yokha yovomerezeka popanda declaretive ku bwalo la milandulo, chinali ngati umboniwo unali wosapezeka ndipo woimbidwayo anali ndi mpata woyamba kudutsapo. Lamulo lowalali lapamwamba la lamulo la kutsutsa lamulo la U. Chikalata cha Asquo, chisanayambe kuyankha mlandu, chinapereka umboni wa chigamulutso chapamwamba.

Pambuyo pa Crawford: Mawu Osonyeza Kuyesa

Zotsatira za Crawford zinayambitsa malonda a nyumba zaling’ono opanga masamu pa zimene kwenikweni zikupanga &lquo; tipitorial ” ndemanga. Khoti linayankha funso limeneli m’milanduwo ingapo yotsatira:

  • . [1] Davis v. Washington [FLT :[200] Khoti linasiyanitsa pakati pa mawu onenedwa pa kufunsa kwa apolisi omwe ali umboni (i., makamaka kukhazikitsa zochitika zakale za mlandu) ndi aja amene saali olemekeza mlandu (inde, opangidwa kutheketsa apolisi kuyang'anizana ndi vuto lochitika mwadzidzidzi lopitirizabe). Pamene mnkhole wina wotchedwa Davis anali kumuvutitsa, mawu ake anaonedwa kukhala osayenerera chifukwa chakuti cholinga chachikulu chinali kugamula nkhani yamwadzidzidzi. Mosiyana ndi zimenezo, mawu operekedwa kwa apolisi pambuyo pa zochitika zamwaŵi ndi zimene zinafotokozedwa kale anali kumbuyo.
  • Melendez-Diaz v. Massachusetts [FLT :09] Khoti linavomereza kuti malipoti a laboratory osonyeza cocaine kukhala contra brigitments ndi mawu a umboni. Ofufuza amene analinganiza malipotiwo ayenera kupereka umboni pozengedwa mlandu pokhapo ngati woimbidwa mlanduyo anali ndi mpata woyamba wowolowerapo. Chigamuchi chinayambitsa mkangano wokhudza vuto la ku alabbishini ndi kufunika kwa umboni wa moyo kuchokera kwa ofufuza a ofufuza.
  • Bullbow v. New Mexico [FLT :2] (2011): [[FLT :3] Khoti linafutukula Mendez-Diaz, podziŵa kuti pamene wofufuza wofufuza za mwazi wa kuchuluka akusimba zotsatirapo za kupima kwa mwazi, woweruzayo sangaloŵe mmalo mwa wofufuza wina kuti achitire umboni za lipotilo ngati wofufuzayo sachitira umboni, pokhapokhapokha ngati woimbidwa mlanduyo anali ndi mpata woyambirira wopimira mwazi wopenda pulogalamu yachi.
  • Palliams v. Illinois [FLT :2] (20: Khoti lokanika silinapereke lingaliro la anthu ambiri ponena kuti ndemanga za wofufuza wa kaundula mu DNA inali umboni. Kuchuluka kwa mawu kwa Justice Alito, kunapeza kuti malipoti otero angadziŵike monga maziko a katswiri wokhulupirira &squo; malingaliro, ngakhale ngati mawu otchulidwawo akanakhaladi umboni. Chigamulo chotsala cha makhoti aang'ono m'pale mu kutsutsa ndi kukhalabe malo opikisana ndi lamulo.

Zolekanitsa ndi Malire a Kutsutsana

Khoti Lapamwamba lazindikira kuti Booka Claus, ngakhale kuti ndi lolimba, silili ndi malire. Ngakhale pansi pa Crawford, machenjesi ena opangidwa bwino akupulumuka chifukwa chakuti saonedwa ngati umboni wa chilengedwe. Zimenezi zimaphatikizapo:

  • Zilengezo zoperekera lamulo: Mawu opangidwa pansi pa chikhulupiriro cha imfa yayandikira ngosatsutsika, ngakhale ngati umboni, chifukwa cha mbiri yawo ya papa. Anthu ambiri adanena poyera kuti zilengezo za imfa zinali zosiyana ndi lamulo wamba ndipo mwakutero zimapulumuka Claus.
  • Kupatula mwa kuchita zinthu zolakwika: [[FLT :1] Ngati woimbidwa mlandu apereka umboni wosadalirika kupyolera mwa cholakwa [1] monga kuwopseza, kupha, kapena kukakamiza [1] woimbidwa mlanduyo amataya ufulu wake wa kukambitsirana. Geles v. California . (2008) , Khoti linatsutsa kuti woimbidwa mlanduyo ayenera kuchitapo kanthu ndi cholinga chake kuletsa umboniwo; cholakwa chachikulu chimene chimatuluka mwangozi m'kulephera kulephera kugamula.
  • Makampani ndi Mabuku a Anthu (Nontiphinial): Zolembera za Ruomine zosungidwa kaamba ka zifuno za boma, zonga ngati 911 tchat mit's kapena mafomu onyamulira m'chipatala, kaŵirikaŵiri zimalingaliridwa kukhala zosayenerera chifukwa chakuti chifuno chawo chachikulu sichili kupangira umboni wa mlandu. Komabe, zolembedwa zopangidwa mwachindunji kaamba ka kuperekedwa, monga malipoti a polisi, zingaperekedwe umboni.

Kusiyana kwakukulu kukukhalabe ngati mawuwo anapangidwa m'mawu amene munthu wolingalira angaoneretu kugwiritsiridwa ntchito kwake m'ndende ya upandu. Cholinga chamwambo ichi ” kuyesa, kolongosoledwa mu Davis ndi milandu ina yotsatira, kuli mwala woyesera kusanthula za kukumana kwamakono.

Mavuto Amakono: Luso la Zopangapanga, Umboni Wakutali, ndi Nyengo Yogwiritsa Ntchito Masamu

Zaka za zana la 21 zabweretsa mavuto aakulu kwambiri ku Bristation Claus. Kuchuluka kwa maumboni a makompyuta otengedwa kuchokera ku mafoni am'manja mpaka ku GPS yojambula mafashoni, malo ochezera a anthu, ndi kuyang'anira zinthu. Kufunsa mafunso ovuta okhudza zimene zikupanga A “ Mouschnion ” ndi ngati chidziŵitso cha makina opanga zinthu chingakhale umboni. Makhoti ambiri amakhulupirira kuti makompyuta-ainjini sasonyeza chifukwa chakuti si mfundo za munthu. Koma pamene chidziŵitsocho chimafotokozedwa ndi wofufuza waumunthu (m., katswiri wa DNA akumasulira kompyuta-geography), ofufuza a &squo; kutsimikizira kwa ofufuza zinthu.

Umboni wa Mavidiyo Akutali ndi Chovid-19

Khoti la Chouver-19 lokakamizika kugwiritsa ntchito luso la zopangapanga mwamsanga kuti lisunge ntchito, kuphatikizapo kufalikira kwa kugwiritsa ntchito umboni wa vidiyo kudutsa mapulatifomu ngati Kuwonjezera. [[FLT]] [FLT]] "Maryland v. Craig [[FLT] [1990] [1990] , Khoti Lali litavomereza kale kugwiritsira ntchito njira imodzi yotsekera yotetezera mboni za ana ku kusokonezeka maganizo, ikumangokhala umboni wongopeza vuto. Khoti lopanda kulakwa kwa kuyang'anizana ndi kusoŵa kwa thanzi, ngakhale kuti lalephera, kudalira kwamphamvu, kuwonjezera kutsimikizira kwamphamvu, kwamphamvu ya m'zipang'ambakuti. Komabe, kudalira pa kutsimikizira kwamphamvu yamphamvu ya kutsimikizira kwamphamvu ya kufalikira kwa kutsimikizira kwa kufalikira kwa kufalikira kwa chivomezi, ngakhalensonsi kwa chivome, kwa zigalamu, monga kutsimikizira kwa ziganizo.

Umboni Wosonyeza Kuti Mulungu Amalenga Anthu pa Intaneti: Zimene Williams Anasiyiratu

Imodzi ya malo otsutsana kwambiri ndiyo kugwiritsira ntchito maripoti a DNA, zotsatira za ululu, ndi zina zopereka malabotale ofufuza za ululu. Illinois [[FLT:] Salves .Illinois chosankha chosiya makhoti aang'ono popanda chitsogozo. Madera ena amavomereza kuti wofufuza woyambayo ayenera kutulutsa; ena amalola katswiri wopereka umboni kulongosola zopezedwa za m'nyumba yogawira ngati lipotilo silinadziŵikizidwa. Kulimbanaku kwapanga mpata wa “ conchonso councic. Ngati umboniwo sungathe kutsimikizira kuti chigamu cha chigamuchocho. M'patuko cha chikanika chikayikiro cha chikayikiro cha chikanikaniko cha chikanika. [FT.5] [4]

Mtanda wa Mtanda ndi Miyeso ya Padziko Lonse

Upandu wofalikira padziko lonse wakakamiza makhoti kulingalira ngati Malo Olimbana ndi Claus akugwira ntchito ku ndemanga zoperekedwa ndi akuluakulu a boma achilendo kapena pansi pa lamulo lachilendo. mu United States v. Abu Hazza (20:0]) (20:0) [FLT], chigawo chachiŵiri chimakhulupirira kuti mawu operekedwa kwa apolisi akunja pa nthaŵi ya kufunsa kwa kumayiko ena sachitidwa mwadala pansi pa Crawford ngati milandu yachilendo sinachitidwira ndi maso ku U.S. Chitsutsochi chikukhalabe chosakhazikika, ndipo makhoti a pansi pa khoti laling'ono chiyeso cha ofufuza cholinga cha anthu achilendo. Kuperekedwa kwa umboni wa milandu ya mayiko akunja kapena mabanki kumbuyo kwa mabanki atsopano kumapereka umboni.

Kutsutsana kwa Claus ndi Ufulu wa Ophedwa

Chipwirikiti china chamakono chikukhudza kuyenera kwa mikhole yaupandu. Pamene mwana kapena wamkulu wokakamizika ali mkhole wa boma ndi anthu a boma a mumlandu’ malamulo a ufulu. Ziopsezo za Crime Acts’ Rights Rights Act (CVRA) ya 2004 ndi malamulo ambiri a boma apatsa mikhole ufulu wa kukhalapo pa mlandu ndi kumvedwa. Pamene mwana kapena wamkulu wokakamizidwayo ali mnkhole, makhoti ayenera kulinganiza woimbidwa ndi woimbidwa ndi mkholezero wankhalwe wankhanza &squo; zikondwerero za kuletsa kusweka. [FLT. .FLT.V. v. "FLD: 3] Amakhalabe olamulira kaamba ka mboni za ana, koma akukhala ndi opangika maganizo aakulu ndi ovutika kwambiri. Malamulo ena angafune kuvomereza kuti aperekedwe kwa milandu, koma angotero kuti aperekedwe.

Malangizo Amtsogolo: Zimene Anatsutsa Claus M’zaka za m’ma 2000

Pamene tekinoloji ikupitirizabe kupambana chiphunzitso chalamulo, chikalata cha Sixth Amendment ’ chigamulo cha kumanja chidzayang'anizana ndi ziyeso zatsopano. Luntha lopanga lomwe lakhala likugwiritsidwa ntchito kupangira malipoti, kupenda umboni, ndipo ngakhale kupanga umboni wozama. Ndani amene ali &lquo; mboni &squo; pamene programu ya AIP itulutsa mawu amene amagwiritsidwa ntchito pambuyo pake polimbana ndi woimbidwa? Makhoti angafunikire kuona kuti mawu olembedwa ndi makina sangakhale umboni chifukwa chakuti alibe anthu opanga zinthu, koma zigamu zogwirizana ndi akatswiri ogwiritsa ntchito Thupy &quo; amwambi.

Kukula kwa [[FLT: 0] kwa kamera kumachititsanso umboni , mawu a pa chiwonetsero cha upandu ndi kugwiritsiridwa ntchito kwa kamera ya m’thupi ndi kuchititsa kuonekera kwa [1] kuchititsanso mafunso. Pamene kamera ya polisi itenga mboni &squo; ndemanga pa malowo, ndizo zimenezo? Pamilandu yamakono, ngati ndemangayo inapangidwa poyankha kwa mkulu wa asilikali &squo; mafunso mkati mwa nthaŵi ya ngozi yopitirizabe, imakhala yosapereka umboni. Koma ngati kamerayo ikugwira mboni ’ mawu odziwirira popanda kusonkhezera kwa mkulu, kupenda kosiyana. Khoti Lapamwamba silinaperekedwebe ndi umboni wa m’matuponse, koma limakhala ndi umboni wofanana ndi makhoti a komiti a boma.

Pomalizira, njira zachibwibwi zovomerezedwa ndi Woweruza Scalia mu Crawford zikupitirizabe kulamulira Court’ kuyandikira, koma tsogolo lake nlosatsimikizirika pamene zigamulo zatsopano zibwera ku ben. Akatswiri ena amachirikiza njira yosinthika, yodalirika imene ingalole makhoti kuvomereza maluwa odalirika ngakhale popanda mtanda woyambirira. Ena akutsutsa kuti kumasulira koyambirira, koyambirira, kumatetezera oimbidwa ndi boma oponderezedwa. Kulinganizika kwa ndale ndi kaganizidwe ka Bwalo kudzakhala ndi njira imene Adrensi Claus amatsatira m’zaka makumi ambiri zikubwera.

Mapeto ake: Choloŵa Chamoyo cha Kulimbana

Chisinthiko cha ufulu wa kuyang'anizana ndi mboni ndicho nkhani ya kuzoloŵera kozikidwa pa lamulo losatha: Woimbidwa mlandu ayenera kukhala ndi mwaŵi woyenera wa kuyesa boma’ umboni. Kuchokera ku English Star Chamber mpaka ku bwalo lamakono lamilandu, kuyambira pamanja a affidavits kufikira pa mapikication DNA, Kulimbana kwa Claus kwatsimikizira kukhala chitetezo cholimba cha ufulu. Siifuna kokha mwaŵi wa kukhalapo, koma mwaŵi wa kuimbidwa mlandu wa kutsutsa umboni wawo. Monga momwe sayansi, chitaganya, ndi chilengedwe cha upandu zikupitirizabe kutembenuzidwa, makhoti ayenera kukhalabe atcheru kutsimikizira kuti kuyenera kwa kutsutsana sikutha ndi kuyenerera kapena kupambana. Phunziro lalikulu la Clauss &quos; ndi mbiri yakale ikufuna kuti kuyenera kugawa kwa ufulu wawo, ndi kuyang'anira kwa zaka 230.

kaamba ka kuŵerenga kowonjezereka, onani malemba onse a [FLT: 1] Claus pa Cornell LII [1], Bwalo Lapamwamba’ lingaliro mu Cawford v. Washington (2004]] , ndi American Bar Association ’s tarletics pa kutsutsana ndi umboni wa mlingo. [[FLT:]]]