Maziko a Chiphunzitso cha Chifilosofi

Lingaliro la mayeso ndi kulinganiza silinatuluke mokwanira kuchokera ku Msonkhano wa Malamulo. Ilo linaimira kukhazikitsidwa kwa zaka mazana a malingaliro andale ndi zokumana nazo zogwira ntchito. Chisonkhezero chachindunji koposa chanzeru chinali Baron de Montesquieu, amene 1748 anagwira ntchito [[FL:0] Mzimu wa Malamulo Unatsutsa kuti ufulu wandale unafuna kugaŵidwa kwa maulamuliro a boma pakati pa boma, mkulu, ndi ntchito zachiweruzo. Montesquieu anakhulupirira kuti mphamvu ya munthu mmodzi kapena thupi ikatsogolera mosapeŵeka ku ulamuliro wankhanza. Malingaliro ake anafalitsidwa mofala ndi kutsutsana ndi anthu a ku America, kumene anagwirizana ndi anthu amene anakumana ndi kupondereza ulamuliro wachifumu pansi pa Mfumu George III.

Opanga malamulowo anasukiranso kwambiri pa mwambo wa lamulo wa Britain, ngakhale kuti anali atangomenya nkhondo ndi Briteni. Dongosolo la Britain linasonyeza kwa nthaŵi yaitali kulekana koipa pakati pa Cord (kuzunza), Nyumba ya Malamulo (opatula), ndi makhoti (a jasti), ngakhale kuti, Briteni yosalembedwa inasiya malire enieniwo osadziŵika bwino, ndipo mapolonentiwo anavutika pamene Nyumba ya Malamulo inaloŵa pa kuloŵerera kwa utsamunda ndi pamene nduna yapansi pa misonkhano. Oyang'anira mabwalo anafuna kugwirizanitsa malekano ameneŵa m'kalata yolembedwa, kupanga nthambi iriyonse momvekera bwino ndi movomerezeka pamene anali kulola njira iliyonse yotsutsa kuloŵererana ndi ena.

Chiphunzitso cha atsamunda chinapereka koleji ya boma logaŵikana. Mzinda uliwonse unali ndi kazembe (woikidwa kapena wosankhidwa), nyumba ya malamulo ya bajaral, ndi khoti, ndi nkhondo zimene zinayambitsa upandu wophunzitsa anthu kuopsa kwa ulamuliro wosatsekeredwa. Mbadwo wa Revolution unaphunziranso mariphabliki akale onga Roma, amene anali ndi njira yovuta yoyendera pakati pa ozembera, a senate, ndi misonkhano yotchuka. Pofika mu 1787, lamulo la maulamuliro opatulidwa ndi makompyuta linavomerezedwa mofala, ngakhale kuti apakapakate anali kutsutsana kowopsa.

Ntchito ya Malamulo

Malamulo a U.S. adasainidwa mu 1787 ndi kuvomerezedwa mu 1788, kugawidwa mphamvu ya boma pakati pa nthambi zitatu zolingana. Mfundo I inakhazikitsa bungwe la bidameral lokhala ndi mphamvu ya kukhazikitsa malamulo, msonkho, ndi kuyambitsa nkhondo. Mfundo II inachita nduna imodzi yopatsidwa mphamvu zolamulira malamulo, kuchititsa malamulo achilendo, ndi kulamulira magulu ankhondo. Gawo III anakhazikitsa chigamulo cha judicaria chotsedwe ndi mphamvu ya kumasulira malamulo ndi mikangano. Koma opanga mapolofa sanaleke pa kulekana. Iwo anapanga njira yolamulira limodzi, yotchuka yofotokozedwa ndi James Magconfred [FLD:] No. Fedlist. [5:]

Mayeso ake ndi ambiri ndi oikidwa. Pulezidenti angapereke lamulo loperekedwa ndi Congress, koma Congress angaike pambali pa kuchuluka kwa magawo aŵiri apamwamba m'nyumba zonse ziŵiri. Nyumba ya Malamulo iyenera kutsimikizira kuikidwa kwa prezidenti ku jadia ndi mkulu ndipo iyenera kuvomereza mapangano ndi mavoti aŵiri. Nyumba ya boma ikugwira mphamvu ya kachikwama ndipo ingachotse ndi kuchotsa prezidenti, prezidenti, ndi oweruza a boma kaamba ka "athric, chiphuphu, kapena maupandu ena aakulu ndi olakwa. judiary, pamene kuli kwakuti nthambi yofooka kwambiri m'mawu a bungwe la coneration (ilamulira kapena kuyendetsa lupanga kapena zikwama), ingamenyetse malamulo ndi kuchotsa malamulo amene amaswa ndi machitidwe audindo a boma kupyolera kumbuyo kwa lamulo la lamulo la lamulo.

Madison analinganiza dongosolo limeneli kuti ateteze nthambi imodzi ku ulamuliro. Monga momwe Madison ananenera, dongosolo linatsimikizira kuti madipatimenti osiyana sadzakhala "osiyana kwambiri kwakuti alibe ulamuliro walamulo pa imodzi ndi inayo. Mmalomwake, nthambizo zikakhala "zogwirizana ndi kugwirizanitsa kuti zipereke ulamuliro walamulo pa nthambi ina iliyonse. Kulimba kwa kapangidwe kameneka kuli m'chilengedwe chake: nthambi iliyonse imadzigwirizanitsa yokha imalimbikitsa kukana kujomba ndi nthambi ina, kusungitsa kulingana kwake.

Kutsutsana pa Msonkhano wa Malamulo

Malamulo omalizira a macheke ndi kulinganiza kulinganiza anachokera ku kulolera kwakukulu pamsonkhano wa ku Philadelphia. Maboma aakulu anafuna kuimira anthu; maboma aang'ono anafuna kuimira kofanana. Kulolera kwakukulu kunapanga nyumba ya malamulo ya mayamura ndi Nyumba ya Oimira ndi Nyumba ya Oimira ndi Nyumba ya Malamulo yosankha boma lililonse. Mabungwe a nthambi apadera analinso mkangano wina waukulu. Nthumwi zina zina zinada nkhaŵa kuti mkulu mmodzi wa boma akakhala mfumu; zina zina zina zinanena kuti mkulu wa mabwana angayambitse chipwirikiti. Chigamulo cha kukhazikitsa ulamuliro wapamwamba wa pulezidenti mmodzi, chosankhidwa ndi Electoral College m’malo mwa anthu, chinasonyeza kuyesa kulinganiza kuvomereza kwa demokrase potsutsana ndi kukhumba kwa anthu ambiri.

Ngakhale pambuyo pa kuperekedwa kwa Malamulo, Antifederalist anapitiriza kunena kuti machekewo anali osakwanira. Iwo anawopa maulamuliro ankhondo, makhoti apamwamba, ndi ulamuliro wa boma pa malamulo a boma. Manthawa anatsogolera ku kutengera kumbuyo kwa Bill of Rights mu 1791, imene inaika malire owonjezereka pa mphamvu ya boma, makamaka ponena za ufulu wa munthu aliyense payekha ndi njira yoyenera. Mapangano khumi oyambawo anawonjezera mayeso a zigamulo mwa kulongosola madera kumene boma silingasokoneze, kupanga chigawo cha zoyenera zotetezeredwa zimene nthambi zonse ziyenera kugonjera.

Kuyesa Koyambirira ndi Zoyamba

Boma latsopanolo linayang'anizana ndi mavuto amene anayesa malire a malamulo ake. Mkati mwa zaka zoŵerengeka, lamulo la kupenda linakhazikitsidwa mwamphamvu kupyolera m'nkhani yotchuka Marbury v. Madison (1803). William Marbury, pakati pa usiku woikidwa wa Pulezidenti John Adams, Mlembi wa Boma James Madison chifukwa cha kulephera kupereka ntchito yake. Woweruza John Marshall, analemba za Supreme Court, adalamulira kuti pamene Marbury anali ndi udindo wake, Bwalo silinalamulira chifukwa cha lamulo lopatsa mphamvu (kugamulidwa 13 wa Chilango cha 1789) yomwe inakhazikitsa ndi Jeudiaudian (Chilamulo cha 1789). M'kambidwa ndi Marshall, ananena kuti, pamene Marshall, malamulo otsutsa malamulo otsutsa malamulo otsutsa malamulo otsutsana ndi olembedwa bwino a Gwill (Chipangano Chatsopano).

Kuyesa kwina koyambirira kunachokera kwa Pulezidenti Thomas Jeffersons kugwiritsira ntchito mphamvu yauyang'aniro. Jefferson, katswiri womanga wokhwima amene adachenjeza za kuchenjera kwa akuluakulu, komabe analamulira Louisiana Purchase mu 1803 popanda ulamuliro wolunjika wa lamulo (Constitution simapatsa pulezidenti mphamvu ya kupeza gawo latsopano). Jefferson anavomereza kuti kugulako kunali kowonjezera koma kunalungamitsa kukhala myezo woyenerera. Pambuyo pake Nyumba ya Malamulo inavomereza panganolo ndi kuchirikiza kugula, kusonyeza kuwonjezereka kwa kuyambitsidwa kwa maulamuliro kwa bungwe lochitidwa ndi chivomerezo ndi chivomerezo cha boma.

Pulezidenti Andrew Jackson anapititsa patsogolo mphamvu ya utsogoleri mwa kugwiritsira ntchito chiwembu. Pulezidenti woyamba adalemba ndalama zokha pa maziko alamulo, koma Jackson adalembanso lamulo lopangitsa kuweruza kwake kukhala kofanana ndi kwa Congress. Jacksons anawona kuti "kusakhala kwalamulo" m'mawu alamulo. Analengeza motchuka: "Prezidenti ndi woimira anthu a ku America," akumanena kuti lamulo losankha limene linapangitsa kuweruza kwake kulingana ndi kwa Congress. Jans adaisintha kwambiri mphamvuyo kuchokera ku chida chochepa, chitsanzo chimene pambuyo pake mapresidenti angagwiritsire ntchito lamulo limene iwo akatsutsa pa malamulo a anthu a ku America m'malo mwa malamulo a boma.

Kuwonjezeka ndi Mavuto M’zaka za m’ma 1800

Nkhondo ya 1812 inayesa maulamuliro aakulu a nkhondo. Pulezidenti James Madison, womanga woyamba wa Malamulo anapezeka kuti anali woyang'anira ndi wolinganiza pa nkhondo ya ku Great Britain. Nkhondoyo sinali yotchuka kwambiri ku New England, ndipo Congress anatsutsana mowopsa ngati pulezidentiyo akanatha kusonkhanitsa asilikali a boma. Madison akulimbana kuti apereke ndalama ndi kukonzekeretsa gulu lankhondo ku Hartford Convention, kumene nthumwi za Federation zinakambirana ndi Secession . Nkhondoyo inatha ndi pangano la Ghent inabwezeretsanso malo ake koma inasiya mafunso osayankhidwa ponena za mphamvu ya prezidenti wamkulu panthaŵi ya za za nkhondo. Mafunsowawo akayambitsanso chiwawa chachikulu m'nkhondo yachiweni.

Nkhondo yachiŵeniŵeni inawona kuwonjezereka kwakukulu kwa ulamuliro wa ulamuliro m'mbiri ya Amereka kufikira pamfundo imeneyo. Pulezidenti Abraham Lincoln anachita zinthu zambiri zimene zinapitirira malire a lamulo la boma: iye patapita nthaŵi anapatulapo lamulo la Habeas corpus, lotsekedwa pa madoko a Kum’mwera (imene ndi nkhondo imene Congress yokha ikhoza kulola), kufutukula gulu lankhondo ndi lankhondo popanda kukhazikitsa malamulo a boma, ndipo anapereka Emancipration Proclation monga lamulo lankhondo lomasula akapolo m’maiko opanduka. Lincoln anatsutsa kuti njira zimenezi zinali zofunika kutetezera Union ndi kuti malamulo a ufulu woperekedwa pa nthaŵi ya chipwirikiti. Komabe, pambuyo pa nkhondo.

Kukonzanso kokha kunalimbana pakati pa nthambi za akuluakulu ndi zalamulo zolamulira maboma a Kum’mwera. Nyumba ya malamulo inapereka ntchito yokonzanso ntchito pa Johnsons vhato, kukhazikitsa ulamuliro wankhondo pa Konsonaya wakale. Khoti Lalikulu linasiya kukonzanso milandu, kukana kupenda nkhani zazikulu monga [[FLT:] Ex palme Milgagan [[FL:1] [18666], zimene zinagonjetsa milandu ya asilikali pamene khoti la Russia linali kugwira ntchito, koma chigamulocho sichinali cholamuliridwa. Kumapeto kwa zaka za zana la 19 zinaona kukwera kwa Msonkhano wamphamvu [1] Msonkhano wa Ault Aultsssss ndi Reader ndi Auter , ndi mapulogalamu ena a m'makwane. Pambuyo pake, mkulu wa bungwe la Grence Kley anakhazikitsa malamulo a boma ndi malamulo ochepa.

Zaka za Zana la 20: Ntchito Yatsopano, Nkhondo ya Dziko, ndi Yamchere

Zaka za zana la 20 zinalinganizanso kulinganiza kwa mphamvu, kwakukulukulu kuyanja nthambi ya akuluakulu. Kulephera kwa Malo kunayambitsa vuto la dziko limene linafuna kuti pakhale kachitidwe kofulumira, kokulira. Pulezidenti Franklin D. Roosevelt anakhazikitsa New Development, programu yaikulu ya boma, kukonzanso, ndi kusintha. Nyumba za malamulo zinapereka ulamuliro wosayerekezereka ku nthambi ya akuluakulu, kukhazikitsa mabungwe atsopano ngati National Recorence Ad Ad Administration ndi Administration. Khoti Yoyamba inagonjetsa maprogramu angapo a Reace Act, kuphatikizapo National Industrity Act mu [FL: 0] [R. Roclective] "kust Poult. v. United States adawonjezera chiwonjezero cha chiwonjezero cha chiwonjezero cha chiwonjezero cha chiwonjezedwa ku chiwonjezero cha chiwonjeko cha chigawo cha . Pamene chigamu chachikulu cha chigamu , chigamu chachikulu chinatsimikizira chakuwonjezera chaku, chinatsimikizira ku chigamu , "1935.

Nkhondo yachiŵiri yapadziko lonse inawonjezera mphamvu ya pulezidenti. Roosevelt inatulutsa Lamulo Lolamulira 906, likuloleza kuikidwa kwa Ajapani a Amereka, amene Khoti Lapamwamba linachirikiza mu [[FLT: 0] Korematsu v. United States (1944). Nkhondoyo inawonanso kupangidwa kwa Magetsi ndi kugwiritsira ntchito mabomba a atomu kovomerezedwa ndi prezidenti. Pambuyo pa nkhondoyo, Pulezidenti Harry Truman adalamula kulanda zitsulo zachitsulo pambuyo pake m'nthaŵi ya mkangano wa ntchito yosungilira kutulutsa nkhondo ya Korea. Khoti Lapamwamba linaka likumatsika kachitidwe kameneka mu [FLGene:2] mu [FL. [2] Olton . v. [FT.F.F.5] [195], kugawa kwa bungwe la Judenti , kugawa kwa bungwe la Gronsosclation Robert]

Vietnam War ndi mbiri yoipa ya Watergate zinasonyeza kuthekera kwa kuikidwa kwa ufumu ndi njira zoupimira. Pulezidenti Lyndon Johnson ndi Richard Nixon anakulitsa kuloŵetsedwa kwa Amereka ku Southeast Asia popanda chilengezo chalamulo cha nkhondo, kudalira pa Tonkin Gulf Resolution (1964). Pamene nkhondo inakhala yosatchuka, Nyumba ya Mabungwe inakhazikitsa Chigamulo cha Nkhondo cha 1973 pa Pulezidenti Nixons Foto, kufunitsa preziden wa mao kudziŵikitsa Congress m'a m'maola 48 akuika magulu ankhondo ndi kuchepetsa ntchito yawo kwa masiku 60 popanda chilolezo cha bungwe la Commocratic National Committeeties ndipo kenaka inachiza. Mpalu wa Sup, mu United States. [FFFF]

Nyengo Yamakono: Kusintha Malo ndi Ulamuliro wa Gulu

Chiyambire kumapeto kwa zaka za zana la 20, njira ya kupima ndi kulinganiza zakhala ndi zitsenderezo zatsopano kuchokera ku kutsendereza kwakukulu kwa kugaŵa ndi kukwera kwa chiphunzitso cha "oyang'anira". Chiphunzitso chimenechi chimanena kuti pulezidenti ali ndi ulamuliro wonse pa nthambi ya mkulu, kuphatikizapo mphamvu ya kuchotsa apolisi alionse ndi kunyalanyaza malamulo amene amalamulira. Ma nduna za magulu onse aŵiriwo zawonjezera kugwiritsira ntchito malamulo a boma popanda Nyumba za Malamulo, kuchokera ku Bill Clinton malamulo a kutetezera malo okhala ndi malo okhalako kwa George W. Nthaŵi zina malamulo ankhondo ndi kuyang'anira, kuyesa kugamula mlandu wa Back Obamas Decrective Acts for Youltss (DAC), kwa mabwalo a , ndipo kumbuyo kwa mphamvu zake zopinga zopinga zopinga. Mabungwe olephera kuletsa kutetezera kwa mabwalo a boma, Resoving Barcus, Reving, Revitions, Relities (zitions.) kumbuyo kwa maboma ena, Revotion (zipose.

Partisan pounika dziko la dziko la 2016, kutsata kutsimikizira kwa mwambo kwa uphungu ndi chivomerezo. Kutsimikizira kwachiweruzo kwakhala kwandale, ndi kutsutsa kochitidwa kaŵirikaŵiri m'Nyumba ya Malamulo kwa miyezi. Kukana kukhala ndi mamvedwe a Merrick Garland , kutsatiridwa ndi chitsimikizo cha mwamsanga cha Neil Gormoth ndi Amy Coney Barrett pogwiritsa ntchito "kusankha kwa nyuk" kuchotsa chigamulo cha Supreme Court, kukulitsa kawonero kawonedwe ka Judicary monga wojambula. Mofananamo, Nyumba zakhala zikutembenukira ku mphamvu ya kutsutsa monga chida chaching'ono: kusagwirizana kwa Bill Clinton, Donald (Trice), ndi kufufuza kwa Joe Banden yapanga kutsutsana ndi chida chamasiku onse cha kutsutsana ndi chitsutso, zomwe zakhala zikukhudza kumbuyo kwa kuyangito.

Kugwiritsira ntchito maoda a akuluakulu kwakwera kwambiri. Mapulani kaŵirikaŵiri apeza kukhala kosavuta kuchita zinthu popanda kugwiritsa ntchito bungwe lolinganizidwa. Pamene kuli kwakuti chiŵerengero cha maonjezo a akuluakulu a pulezidenti aliyense chatha kuyambira pamene New DOC (FDR yaperekedwa 3,721 m'zaka 12), ukulu ndi tanthauzo la malamulo amakono lakula. Courtation Review Act imalola malamulo a bungwe ndi chikalata cha pulezidenti chosavuta ndi chikalata cha pulezidenti, koma kaŵirikaŵiri amagwiritsidwa ntchito kusiyapo pa kusintha kwa kayendetsedwe ka zinthu. Ndiponso, Congress yapereka ulamuliro waukulu ku mabungwe a akulu, kuwonjezera chigamulo cha "Gaunyiridwa. [FL:] [FL:] [FFUL:] [5] [4] chiphunzitso chomveka chofunikira kulongosola malamulo omveka bwino, koma chofanana ndi chigamu [1]

Khoti Lalikulu Lokhala Arbiter

Khoti Lapamwamba lakhala likutumikira monga cholamulira chotheratu m'kutsutsana kwa mphamvu, ngakhale kuti mbali yake yasinthika. Kuwonjezera pa Marbury ndi [FLT]] [FLT]], Bwalo linagamula [[FLT:] [FFFF3]] [pansi], [zifukwa za m'magazi], Hadah v. [[FFFF:6] [zikulu za m'maganiziyeso] [zi], (19983]), kuswa chivomezi cha Revition Revition Revition Revition Revitions, zimene posachedwapa zinafazitsa ndalama zogwiritsidwa ntchito pa zopereka. [Zifukwakepese, za mPUPUPU .] Zifulmose.

Mkangano wa ukulu wa mwaŵi wa kuyang'anira ukupitirizabe. Trump v. Vance (2020), Khoti linakana Pulezidenti Trumps kunena kuti sakufuna kutengeratu kumbuyo kwa maupandu a boma, pamene kuli kwakuti mu Trump v. Thomp [20] [201], linalephera kutseka mbuyo m'maderesi kuti asunge zolembera za m'nyumba ya pa komiti ya January 6. Nkhani zimenezi zikugogomezera kwambiri kuti phokoso la pakati pa kuonekera, kuŵerengera mlandu, ndi kufunika kwa chinsinsi ku nthambi ya akuluakulu.

Mapeto ake: Vuto Lopirira

Kusinthika kwa mayeso ndi kulinganiza m'mbiri ya ku America kumasonyeza dongosolo lamphamvu, lopikisana lomwe silinakhalepobe. Mbadwo uliwonse wamasuliranso malamulo a malamulo poyankha mavuto, kusintha kwa luso la zopangapanga, ndi kusintha kwa magulu andale. Opanga mafream anayembekezera kusintha kumeneku; anapanga dongosolo lamoyo lomwe lingagwirizane ndi lamulo lamphamvu. Dongosolo lakhala likulimbana ndi mphamvu. Linapulumuka nkhondo, kutha kwa chuma, kutsata, ndi kuwonjezereka kwa ulamuliro, koma mavuto a nyengo yamakono .

Chimene chimakhalabe chosasintha ndicho kusagwirizana kokulira: nthambi iliyonse ili ndi chisonkhezero chodzifunira kuwonjezera ulamuliro wake, ndipo kusunga mkhalidwewo kumafuna kusamala kosalekeza kuchokera ku nthambi zitatu zonse ndi ku chigawo cha nzika. Kupambana kwa macheke ndi kulinganiza kumadalira pa kugwirizana kwa malamulo alamulo ndi kufunitsitsa kwa nthambi iliyonse kuletsa kuloŵerera ndi kuyang'anira mbulunga ina. Pamene dzikolo likulimbana ndi mavuto a kuyang'anira zasayansi, ziwopsezo zotetezera dziko lonse, ndi kulinganiza kwa malo a nyumba, lidzakhalabe lokhazikika. Ngati lidzakhalabe lolimba kuletsa nthambi iliyonse kulanda boma la America ndi funso losatha kuiwala.