Dongosolo la malamulo limapanga maziko a chitaganya cholungama chirichonse, kupereka maziko a kuthetsedwa kwa mikangano, zoyenera kutetezeredwa, ndipo kuŵerengera kukuchitidwa. Pamutu pa dongosolo lino pali makhoti . "malamulo oikizidwa ndi kumasulira malamulo, kutsimikizira kuti chilungamo chikuperekedwa ndi kuonedwa kukhala chikuperekedwa. Kwa ophunzira ndi aphunzitsi m'mbiri, zigawo, ndi maphunziro a zachikhalidwe, kuzindikira mmene makhoti amagwirira ntchito ndi zimene zimapanga dongosolo lalamulo. Nkhaniyi imapenda kapangidwe ka malamulo ndi ntchito ya mabwalo, malamulo a maziko a milandu yolungama ndi yoyenerera, ndi kusinthika kwa mbiri yakale kumene kwapanga dongosolo lachiweruzo lamakono.

Ntchito ya Makhoti m’Chilengedwe

Makhoti salowererapo pankhani za milandu pamene mikangano ya zamalamulo imathetsedwa mogwirizana ndi malamulo ndi njira zoyendetsera milandu.

  • [[MLT:0] Kutsogolera ndi kugwiritsa ntchito malamulo: Makhoti amagamula tanthauzo la malamulo, malamulo, ndi malamulo m'nkhani zina, kutsimikizira kuti lamulo lagwiritsidwa ntchito mosasintha ndi mosakondera.
  • Kutetezera ufulu wa munthu aliyense: mwa kupenda kwachiweruzo, makhoti amachinjiriza ufulu wofunika monga ufulu wa kulankhula, kuyenera kwa kuweruza kolungama, ndi chitetezo ku kutsekeredwa kopanda lamulo / mwa kutsutsa malamulo kapena machitidwe a boma amene amaswa zitsimikizo za lamulo.
  • Kuweruza kwaperekedwa: Makhoti amapereka malo kwa mikhole kufunafuna mawonekedwe, kwa oimbidwa mlandu kupangira chitetezero, ndi kwa chitaganya kuchititsa ochita zoipa kukhala ndi mlandu kupyolera mwa ziletso za upandu kapena mankhwala a chiŵeniŵeni.
  • [[MLT:0] Kusunga dongosolo la kakhalidwe: mwa kuthetsa mikangano mwamtendere ndi mwaudindo, makhoti amachepetsa kuthekera kwa kugamula chilungamo ndi kulimbikitsa anthu kudalirana m’malamulo.

Ufulu wa oweruza ndiwo maziko a ntchito zimenezi. Oweruza ayenera kukhala okhoza kugamula milandu yozikidwa pa lamulo ndi mfundo, popanda kuopa kulangidwa kapena kusonkhezeredwa ndi nthambi za akuluakulu a boma. Mayiko okhala ndi abusa amphamvu, odziimira paokha, amakula kwambiri m’zachuma, kutsika kwa ziphuphu, ndi kukwera kwa zigamulo zandale.

Mitundu ya Makhoti

Kumvetsa makhoti osiyanasiyana kumalongosola bwino mmene milandu imayendetsedwera ndi kuti khoti lomwe lili ndi ulamuliro, limatchedwa kuti ndi lolamulira.

Makhoti a Mlandu Waukulu wa Kuzenga mlandu

Makhoti a m’dziko la United States, omwe nthawi zambiri amadziwika kuti makhoti aakulu, amaweruza milandu yonse kuyambira pa milandu ya chikalata chaudindo, mpaka pa milandu ya mlandu.

Makhoti a Apandu

Makhoti a apandu amatsutsa milandu imene boma limaimba mlandu munthu kapena gulu la anthu oswa lamulo laupandu. Mtolo wa umboni umakhala pa mlandu, umene uyenera kukhazikitsa liwongo mosakaikira kwenikweni. Makhoti aupandu amaweruza milandu yaing’ono (kuswa malamulo) kufikira kulakwa kwakukulu (kuphwanya malamulo, chinyengo). Mabwalo ameneŵa amayang’aniranso kuphwanya malamulo, kulipira milandu, kuchonderera, ndi kuweruza.

Makhoti

Makhoti a boma amathetsa mikangano pakati pa anthu a boma . "ayenera kukhala ndi ufulu wapamwamba, udindo, ndi kulephera. Nkhani zachiŵeniŵeni zimaphatikizapo mapangano, mikangano ya katundu, kuvulaza munthu, ndi nkhani za banja. Mtolo wa umboni wa milandu ya boma ndi wochepa kuposa m’milandu yachiŵeniŵeni: woweruza ayenera kutsimikizira mlanduwo mwa kupenda umboni (koposa kulephera). Malamulo a m’khoti kaŵirikaŵiri amaphatikizapo kulipira ndalama kapena malamulo a boma.

Makhoti Apadera

Maboma ambiri amakhazikitsa makhoti okhala ndi mphamvu zochepa zosamalira bwino mbali za zamalamulo:

  • Makhoti a m'banja: Ayang'anira chisudzulo, kusunga ana, kuchirikiza mwana, kulera ana, ndi chiwawa chapanyumba. Makhoti ameneŵa kaŵirikaŵiri amatsatira njira yochiritsira kwambiri, kusumika maganizo pa ubwino wa ana.
  • [[FLT: 0] Makhoti a Juvenile: Akuchita ndi ana oimbidwa mlandu wa kupulupudza kapena amene ali odalira (ongotsutsidwa kapena ochitiridwa nkhanza). Chigogomezero chake n’chokhudza kubwezeretsa moyo m’malo mwa chilango.
  • [[MLT:0] Probate Makhoti: Kuyang'ana kuyang'anira kuyang'anira zikalata, malo, zotetezera, ndi zotengera zosonkhanitsira.
  • [[FULT:0] Khoti la Tax: Kuthetsa mikangano pakati pa okhoma msonkho ndi akuluakulu a msonkho.
  • Makhoti a Chibalo: Azifotokoza zopempha kaamba ka anthu kapena mabizinesi ofuna mpumulo ku ngongole pansi pa lamulo la boma la kulephera kwa ndalama.
  • Makhoti Oyang’anira: Kutsutsa mikangano yokhudza mabungwe a boma, monga mapindu a zachitetezo, kusamuka, kapena ntchito. Nthaŵi zambiri zimenezi zimakhala mbali ya nthambi ya akuluakulu koma ziyenera kupereka chilungamo chachibadwa.

Kukhalapo kwa makhoti apadera kumasonyeza kucholoŵana komakulakula kwa malamulo amakono ndi kufunika kwa oweruza okhala ndi ukatswiri m’mbali zina.

Zimene Zinachitika: Malamulo Oyenera

Kumvetsa masitepe ameneŵa kumathandiza nzika kuzindikira mmene milandu imayambira kuchokera pamene yayambika kupita ku chigamulo.

Kudandaula Kapena Kuimba Mlandu

M’nkhani yachiŵeniŵeni, woweruzayo amasaina chidandaulo ndi khoti, kulongosola maumboni, maziko alamulo a mlanduwo, ndipo chithandizo chinafunafuna. Bwalo lamilandu lipereka chilolezo, chimene pamodzi ndi kudandaulako zimaperekedwa kwa woimbidwa mlandu. Mlandu, njirayo imayamba ndi kumangidwa, kulembedwa mlandu ndi wozenga mlandu, kapena kuimbidwa mlandu ndi ajuli wamkulu. Chikalata chozenga mlanducho chiyenera kufotokoza upandu woimbidwa ndi kupereka tsatanetsatane wokwanira kwa woimbidwa mlanduwo kukonzekera chilungamitso.

2. Kulabadira ndi Kutsogolera

Woimbidwa mlanduyo ayenera kuyankha ku chidandaulocho mkati mwa masiku oikika, kaŵirikaŵiri 20 mpaka 30. Chivomerezo chingavomereze kapena kukana zinenezozozo ndipo chingadzutse chitetezero kapena kutsutsa. Ngati woimbidwa mlanduyo alephera kuyankha, khoti lingaloŵe m’chiweruzo chotsimikizirika. M'milandu, woimbidwa mlanduyo aloŵa m'chifunsiro (cholakwa, osati cholakwa, kapena popanda mpikisano) pa kuweruza.

Kutulukira

Kufufuza ndi mbali ya pulogalamu yapasadakhale imene anthu aŵiri onse amakambirana mfundo ndi umboni. Mbali imeneyi ndi yofunika kwambiri poteteza zinthu zosayembekezereka pozenga milandu ndi kupititsa patsogolo malo ozoloŵereka. Zida zofufuzira zimaphatikizapo:

  • ['Mafunso olembedwa amene ayenera kuyankhidwa pansi pa lumbiro.
  • Malamulo: Umboni wa Mawu wochitidwa pansi pa lumbiro lisanazengedwe mlandu, wolembedwa kaamba ka kugwiritsira ntchito kwa pambuyo pake.
  • Mafuno kaamba ka Kutulutsa: Zofunidwa kaamba ka zikalata, ma email, zolembedwa za mankhwala, kapena umboni wina wowoneka.
  • Mapangano kaamba ka Kutseguka: Mawu amene mmodzi amapempha wina kuvomereza kapena kukana kuchepetsa nkhani.

M'milandu, woweruzayo ali ndi thayo la lamulo (pansi pa Brady v. Maryland [1] kuvumbula umboni wa kuweruza [1] umboni umene ungapereke chinenero kwa woimbidwa mlanduyo kapena kuchepetsa chilango.

Kuyamba Kulankhula ndi Kumva

M’khotimo lisanazengedwe mlandu, aliyense angapemphe kuti athetse nkhani zina.

  • Kuchotsa: Auning kuti kudandaulako kumalephera kutchula mfundo yomveka kapena kuti khoti sililamulira.
  • [[MLT:0] Motion ya Chisalungamo cha Chidutswa: imafunafuna ulamuliro woyanja munthu mmodzi popanda chiyeso chifukwa chakuti palibe mkangano weniweni pa mfundo za m'zinthu.
  • Kutsendereza Umboni: M'milandu yaupandu, amatsutsa kuti umboni unapezedwa mosemphana ndi lamulo ndipo uyenera kuchotsedwa.
  • [[FULT:0] Motion mu Limine: imafunafuna kuchotsa umboni wina wosadziŵitsidwa pozenga mlandu.

5. Kuzenga Mlandu

Mlanduwo ndiwo kupitiriza kwamwambo kumene umboni uperekedwa kwa woweruza kapena juli.

  • Mfundo zotsegulira: Magawo amalongosola zimene akufuna kutsimikizira.
  • Kuperekedwa kwa Umboni: Mboni zimaitanidwa ndi kufufuzidwa (kufufuza mwachindunji, kusanthula, kutumizanso). Mabuku, zithunzithunzi, ndi malipoti aukatswiri amaloŵetsedwa m'cholembedwa.
  • Kulongosola mawu: Mbali iliyonse imafupikitsa umboni ndi kutsimikizira kaamba ka chigamulo chabwino.
  • [[FULT:0] Malangizo: Woweruza akufotokoza lamulo logwira ntchito kwa ajuli.
  • Dielebation ndi Malangizo: Court (kapena woweruza m'zembe lozenga) amagamula mwadala ndi kubwezera chigamulo.

Pa milandu ya upandu, chiweruzo chiyenera kuperekedwa mogwirizana pa mfundo zosiyanasiyana.

6. Kuzenga Mlandu (Mlandu Waupandu)

Ngati woimbidwa mlanduyo apezedwa ndi liwongo, mlandu wapadera wagamulidwa. Woweruza amalingalira zinthu zonga ngati ukulu wa mlanduwo, mbiri ya upandu wa woimbidwa mlandu, zilengezo za kuukira kwa wochitiridwa, ndi zikalata zovomerezera kuchokera kwa akuluakulu ozembetsa. Zobwezera zingaphatikizepo kumangidwa, malipoti, kugaŵiridwa, ntchito ya m'chitaganya, kapena kubwezera.

Pemphani

Khoti lolephera lingapereke chigamulo ku khoti lapamwamba. Zipimelo sizilinso milandu; zimapenda mbiri ya mlandu wa zolakwa za lamulo zimene zingayambukire zotsatira. Khoti la aumperellate lingavomereze, kusintha, kapena kubwezera mlanduwo pa mlandu watsopano. Mlandu waupandu, woimbidwa mlanduyo angapereke chigamulo, koma ozenga mlandu satha kuvomereza chigamulo cha kuchotsedwa (chitetezero changozi cha kaŵiri).

Njira yoperekera chilango ingafikirenso ku bwalo lamilandu lalikulu koposa m’bomalo .⁠ monga khoti lalikulu kapena Bwalo Lapamwamba la United States (lomwe kaŵirikaŵiri limakhala ndi ufulu wosankha milandu imene ingamvedwe.)

Mayesero Abwino ndi Oyenera

Malamulo a boma aperekanso umboni wakuti milandu idzakhala yolungama ndiponso kuti anthu adzauzidwa kuti asintha zinthu zimene zikukhudza ufulu wawo ndiponso kuti amve mwayi wawo.

Mmene Zinthu Zimayendera

Mbali imeneyi imafuna kuti boma lichotse moyo, ufulu, kapena katundu wotsatira njira zabwino.

  • Thukuni: Woimbidwa mlandu ayenera kuuzidwa milandu kapena zimene akunenezedwa.
  • Kumva: Mwayi wopindulitsa wa kupereka umboni ndi zigomeko pamaso pa wopanga chosankha wopanda tsankho.
  • Woweruza wa Upoyera: Woweruza ayenera kukhala wopanda tsankho ndi wopanda mikangano yachikondwerero.
  • Kuyenera ku Uphungu: Pansi pa Kusintha kwa Chisanu ndi chimodzi mu U.S., oimbidwa mlandu m'milandu yaupandu ali ndi kuyenera kwa kuimira kwalamulo; ngati sangathe kupereka loya, mmodzi ayenera kuikidwa (onani [[FLT:] Gideon v. Wainwrr[FL:3]).
  • Kutsutsa : Ufulu wa kudutsa mboni za aretamine ndi oneneza.
  • Kachitidwe kokakamiza: Ufulu wa kuchitira umboni wa m’munsi.
  • Kuweruza kwa Thupi: [[FLT :1] Kusiyapo pamikhalidwe yochepa, ziyeso ziyenera kukhala zotseguka kwa anthu kuchirikiza kuonekera kwa maso ndi kuyenera.
  • Kuzenga mlandu kwamwamsanga: Oimbidwa mlandu ali ndi kuyenera kwa kuzenga mlandu popanda kuchedwa kosayenera.

Mmene Zinthu Zimayendera

Chilamulo choyenerera chimakhala ndi malire a zimene boma lingachite, mosasamala kanthu za njira zimene limagwiritsira ntchito. Chimateteza ufulu wofunika monga kukhala pawekha, ukwati, kulera ana, ndi ufulu wathupi. Kuloŵerera m'boma pokhapokha ngati boma likufuna kukhazikitsa boma ndipo lamulolo lakhala logwirizana. Khoti Lapamwamba la U.S. lagwiritsira ntchito njira yoyenerera kuletsa kuletsa kuletsa kulera ([[FLT:]] [GORVUL] v. Connectic [F:1]) ndi ukwati womwewo ([FLT:] Ogberge b. Hods .

Malamulo Amakhalidwe Abwino Oyesa Alamulo a Padziko Lonse

Kuyenera kwa kuzenga mlandu koyenera kumavomerezedwa m’zida zazikulu zomenyera ufulu wa anthu, kuphatikizapo Chikalata cha Universal Declaration of Human Rights (Artle 10) ndi pangano la Padziko Lonse pa Zoyenera za Chiŵeniŵeni ndi za Politiliti (Artle 14). Miyezo imeneyi imafunikira makhoti odziimira okha ndi opanda tsankho, kudzimva kukhala wopanda liwongo, ndi kuyenera kwa kuchititsa apilo. Mabwalo a milandu aupandu a padziko lonse, monga International Criminal Court, amatsatiranso mapulinsipulo ameneŵa.

Zimene Zinachitika Kalekale

Chisinthiko cha kuzenga mlandu kolungama ndi malingaliro oyenera zazikidwa kwambiri m’mbiri.

Magna Carta (1215)

Kaŵirikaŵiri otchulidwa kukhala maziko a kachitidwe koyenera, Magna Carta’s Chaputala 39 chinalengeza kuti palibe munthu waufulu amene angakhoze kumangidwa, kuchotsedwa, kapena kuletsedwa kusiyapo chiweruzo cha lamulo cha ausinkhu wake kapena ndi lamulo la dziko. Chikalata chimenechi, chokakamizidwa pa Mfumu Yohane ndi aluba opanduka, chinakhazikitsa lamulo lakuti mfumu iyenera kugonjera lamulo kwa nthaŵi yake.

Buku lachingelezi lakuti Council of Rights (1689)

Pambuyo pa Glorious Revolution, Bill of Rights yachingelezi inaletsa belo lopambanitsa, chilango chankhanza ndi chachilendo, ndipo inafuna kuti Nyumba ya Malamulo ivomereze zochita zina zachifumu. Ilo linatsimikiziranso kuyenera kwa kupempha mfumu ndi ufulu ku nkhondo yoima mumtendere.

Malamulo a U.S. ndi Bill of Rights (1787-1791)

Malamulo anapanga lamulo lotetezera lokhala ndi oweruza oikidwa moyo (Article III) ndipo anakhazikitsa ukulu wa lamulo la boma. Bill of Rights, makamaka Lachinayi, Lachisanu, Lachisanu, Lachisanu ndi chitatu, ndi Lachisanu ndi chitatu Lakuti Lakutikhazikitsa, Malamulo ogwirizana ndi chitetezo ku kufunafuna kosalingalira, kudzidalira, ngozi, ngozi zoŵirikiza kaŵiri, ndipo zinafunikira njira zofunikira, kuzenga milandu ya mwamsanga ndi yapoyera, ndi kuyenera kwa uphungu. Genearth Amendmend (1868) inawonjezera njira yoyenerera yotetezera ku machitidwe a boma, kachitidwe kotchedwa Contension.

Milandu Yaikulu ya Khoti

Zigamulo zingapo za Khoti Lalikulu la United States zawonjezera ufulu woweruza mlandu:

  • Miranda v . Arizona (1966:] OFT apolisi anafuna kudziŵitsa okayikira ufulu wawo wa kukhala chete ndi kukhala ndi loya wopezekapo pamene akufunsidwa mlandu.
  • Gideon v. Wainwright [1] (1963): adatsimikizira kuyenera kwa kupereka uphungu kwa oimbidwa mlandu m’makhoti a boma, ngakhale ngati sangathe kulipirira loya.
  • Brady v. Maryland [1] (63): adalemba kuti ozenga mlandu amavumbula umboni wa kutetezera.
  • Batson v. Kentucky (1986): [[FLT: 3]] Zitokoso zopinga zozikidwa pa fuko kapena chibadwa.
  • Taylor v. Louisiana [1975]: Kufunidwa kuti maiwe a juli aimire mbali yoyera ya chitaganya.

Kupita Patsogolo kwa Mayiko

Nkhondo yachiŵiri ya padziko lonse itatha, milandu ya ku Nuremberg Trials inakhazikitsa kuti anthu adzakhale ndi mlandu pa milandu ya anthu ndi kuti malamulo oyenera ozenga milandu akugwiranso ntchito ngakhale m’makhoti a mayiko osiyanasiyana.

Kufunika kwa Maphunziro a Malamulo

Kuphunzitsa anthu malamulo a boma n’kofunika kwambiri kuti agwire ntchito yokhudzana ndi malamulo a demokalase.

  • Kumvetsetsa kapangidwe ka khoti: Kudziŵa khoti limene limasamalira mlandu wamtundu uti umene umathandiza anthu kuwongolera mikangano ndi kupeza mankhwala mogwira mtima kwambiri.
  • Kuphunzira ponena za zoyenera zalamulo ndi chitetezo: kudziŵa zitsimikizo za lamulo, ufulu wa anthu, ndi njira zaupandu zimapatsa mphamvu anthu kuti avomereze kuswa malamulo ndi kufunafuna zowatetezera.
  • Kusuliza maganizo osuliza ndi maluso a kupenda: Kuphunzira lamulo kumaphunzitsa kulingalira kotsatirika, kupenda umboni, ndi kukhoza kupanga mfundo zokopa, kumapindulitsa pantchito iliyonse.
  • Kuvomereza pangano la boma: Kumvetsetsa njira zalamulo kumalimbikitsa kutengamo mbali m’ntchito yaujuli, kuvota kwa oyembekezera kuweruza, ndi kuvomereza masinthidwe alamulo.

Kwa aphunzitsi, kugwirizanitsa nkhani za lamulo m'mbiri ndi masukulu amathandiza ophunzira kugwirizanitsa malamulo alamulo osadziŵika ndi zochitika zenizeni ndi zochitika zamakono. Mabuku onga ngati Faceral judiary's Educational Outformation ndi [FLT ] Institute ya Chidziŵitso pa Cornell Law School akupereka zinthu zopezeka.

Mavuto a M’tsogolo

Ngakhale kuti zaka mazana ambiri zapita patsogolo, ziyeso zolungama zimayang'anizana ndi ziwopsezo zosalekeza. Kumangidwa kwa anthu ambiri, kusiyanitsa mitundu m’dongosolo la chilungamo, kulephera kuimira lamulo kwa osauka, ndi kugwiritsa ntchito kufunsira (zimene zimathetsa maupandu oposa 90 peresenti ku U.S.) zingafooketse njira yoyenerera. M’maboma ankhanza, makhoti kaŵirikaŵiri amagwiritsiridwa ntchito monga zida zopondereza, popanda kudziimira. Kubuka kwa maumboni a za magetsi ndi kuyang’anira kumadzutsanso mafunso atsopano onena za kubisika, kutsendereza, ndi kuyenera kwa kuyankha umboni.

Zoyesayesa za kuthetsa mavuto ameneŵa zimaphatikizapo njira za kuthandizira otetezera aunyinji, kukonza ma beil, kukonzanso, ndi kugwiritsira ntchito umisiri kuwonjezera kuwonekera kwa khoti. Mabungwe apadziko lonse monga International Commission of Jurist [1] Kuyang'anira ufulu wa chiweruzo padziko lonse ndi kuchirikiza kusintha kwa malamulo.

Kumaliza

Makhoti ndi njira zalamulo siziri kokha njira za kulinganiza; zimagwirizanitsa kudzipereka kwa chitaganya ku chilungamo, kulingana, ndi lamulo. Mwa kutsimikizira ziyeso zolungama ndi kuchirikiza njira yoyenera, dongosolo la malamulo limatetezera ulemu wa munthu aliyense ndi kusunga pangano la kakhalidwe. Ulendo wa m'mbiri kuchokera ku Magna Carta kupita ku ziŵiya zamakono za ufulu wa anthu umasonyeza kukwaniritsa kumamatira kwa chilungamo chokhalitsa . Kwa ophunzira ndi aphunzitsi, kuzindikira kachitidwe ndi malamulo a dongosolo lino sikuli ka maphunziro koma kufunikira kwa anthu. Monga nzika zamtsogolo, iwo adzalandira thayo la kuchinjiriza makampani ameneŵa ndi kuchirikiza dongosolo la chilungamo limene limakhala ndi moyo mogwirizana ndi zolinga zake.